Nias language
| Nias | |
|---|---|
| Li Niha | |
| Native to | Indonesia |
| Region | Nias and Batu Islands, North Sumatra |
| Ethnicity | Nias people |
Native speakers | 770,000 (2000 census)[1] |
Austronesian
| |
| Latin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2 | nia |
| ISO 639-3 | nia |
| Glottolog | nias1242 |
 Distribution of Nias language speakers in the Nias and Batu islands (nia) | |
The Nias language is an Austronesian language spoken on Nias Island and the Batu Islands off the west coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. It is known as Li Niha by its native speakers. It belongs to the Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands subgroup which also includes Mentawai and the Batak languages.[1] It had about 770,000 speakers in 2000.[1] There are three main dialects: northern, central and southern.[2] It is an open-syllable language, which means there are no syllable-final consonants.
Dialects
[edit]Nias is typically considered to have three dialects.[3][4]
- Northern dialect: particularly the Gunungsitoli variety, Alasa and Lahewa area.[3]
- South dialect: South Nias, Gomo Area, Telukdalam Area and Batu Islands.[3]
- Central dialect: West Nias, particularly in Sirombu and Mandrehe areas.[3]
Cognate percentage among the dialects of Nias is about 80%.[5]
The northern variant is considered the prestige dialect. The only complete Bible translation is written in the northern dialect and is used by speakers of all dialects.[6]
Phonology
[edit]Nias has the following phonemes (sounds only found in the northern dialect are given in green, southern-only sounds are in red):[7][8]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u | |
| Mid | e | ɤ ⟨ö⟩ | o |
| Open | a |
| Labial | Dental/ Alveolar |
Palato- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop/ Affricate |
voiceless | t | tʃ ⟨c⟩ | k | ʔ ⟨'⟩ | ||
| voiced | b | d | dʒ ⟨z⟩ | ɡ | |||
| prenasalized / trilled | ᵐb /ʙ ⟨mb⟩ | ⁿdʳ /dʳ ⟨ndr⟩ | |||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | x ⟨kh⟩ | h | ||
| voiced | v ⟨w⟩ | z | |||||
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ ⟨ng⟩ | ||||
| Approximant | ʋ /β ⟨w⟩ | l | j ⟨y⟩ | w ⟨ŵ⟩ | |||
| Trill | r | ||||||
Phonetic descriptions of the sounds traditionally written as ⟨mb⟩ and ⟨ndr⟩ greatly vary. Sundermann (1913) and Halawa et al. (1983) describe them as prenasalized stop [ᵐb] and prenasalized trilled stop [ⁿdʳ] for the northern dialect,[9][10] while Brown (2005) records them as trill [ʙ] and trilled stop [dʳ] for the southern dialect.[8] In an acoustic study of Nias dialects from three locations, Yoder (2010) shows a complex pattern of four phonetic realizations of ⟨mb⟩ and ⟨ndr⟩: plain stop, prenasalized stop, stop with trilled release, stop with fricated release.[11][a]
The status of initial [ʔ] is not determined; there are no phonetic vowel-initial words in Nias.
The contrast between [v] and [ʋ] (both written ⟨w⟩ in common spelling) is only observed in the southern dialect. Here, the fricative [v] only occurs in initial position in the mutated form (see §Noun case marking (mutation)) of nouns beginning with f, e.g. fakhe ~ wakhe [vaxe]. The approximant [ʋ] can appear in initial and medial position, and is in free variation with [v] for many speakers of the southern dialect.[12] For the northern dialect, only fricative approximant [ʋ] is reported, corresponding to both sounds of southern Nias.[13] The semivowel [w] is a distinct phoneme and is written ⟨ŵ⟩ in common spelling.[14]
Grammar
[edit]Nias has an ergative–absolutive alignment.[15] It is the only known ergative–absolutive language in the world that has a "marked absolutive", which means that absolutive case is marked, whereas ergative case is unmarked.[16][17]
There are no adjectives in Nias; words with that function are taken by verbs.[18]
Pronouns
[edit]The following table lists the free and bound pronouns of Nias (green = only used in the northern dialect, red = only used in the southern dialect):[19][20][21]
| independent | absolutive | genitive | ergative realis |
S = A irrealis | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1.sg. | ya'o / ya'odo / ya'oto | ndra'o(do) / ‑do / ndrao(to) | -gu | u- | gu- |
| 2.sg. | ya'ugö | ndra'ugö / ‑ö / ndraugö | -u / ‑mö | ö- | gö- |
| 3.sg. | ya'ia | ia / ya | -nia | i- | ya- |
| 1.pl.incl. | ya'ita | ita | -da | ta- | da- |
| 1.pl.excl. | ya'aga | ndra'aga / ‑ga | -ma | ma- | ga- |
| 2.pl. | ya'ami | ami / -mi | -mi | mi- | gi- |
| 3.pl. | ya'ira | ira | -ra | la- | ndra- |
Independent pronouns are used:
- as the predicate in nominal clauses
- as the P argument[b] of transitive verbs in dependent (including relative and nominalized) clauses
Andrehe'e
DIST
nasu
dog:MUT
si-usu
REL-bite
ya'o
1SG.IND
(southern dialect)[23]
'That's the dog that bit me.'
- following certain prepositions and ha 'only'
- in fronted (topicalized) position
Absolutive pronouns are used:
- as the S argument of independent intransitive and nominal clauses (in the southern dialect, only in realis mood)
- as the P argument of transitive verbs in independent clauses
- as the stimulus with intransitive verbs expressing emotions or states of mind
Genitive pronouns are used:
- as possessor, e.g. ama-gu 'my father'
- following certain prepositions, e.g. khö-gu 'to me'
- as the S argument in nominalized intransitive clauses
- as the A argument in nominalized transitive clauses
La-faigi
3PL.ERG-see
vamaoso-ra
NR:MUT:IPF:raise-3PL.GEN
(southern dialect)[28]
'They watched them raise [it].'
- as the A argument in relative clauses with the P argument of a transitive verb as head
U-fake
1SG.ERG-use
zekhula
coconut:MUT
ni-rökhi-nia
PASS-grate-3SG.GEN
(southern dialect)[29]
'I used the coconut which she grated.'
Ergative (realis) pronouns are used:
- as the A argument in independent transitive clauses (in the southern dialect, only in realis mood)
Irrealis pronouns are used in the southern dialect:
- as the S argument in independent intransitive clauses in irrealis mood
Gu-möi
1SG.IRR-go
ba
LOC
fasa
market
mahemolu
tomorrow
(southern dialect)[31]
'I want to go to the market tomorrow.'
- as the A argument in independent transitive clauses in irrealis mood
Gu-moturagö
1SG.IRR-IRR:tell.about
ndraugö
2SG.ABS
khö-ra
DAT-3PL.GEN
(southern dialect)[32]
'I'm going to tell them about you.'
In the northern dialect, the irrealis pronouns are restricted to third person, and are employed in what Sundermann (1913) calls "jussive" mood.
Noun case marking (mutation)
[edit]Case marking of nouns is indicated in Nias by mutation of the initial consonant. Several consonants are subject to mutation as shown in the table below. Where a word begins in a vowel, either n or g is added before the vowel; the choice of n or g is lexically conditioned. (For example, öri ~ nöri is 'village federation', öri ~ göri is 'bracelet'.)[34]
| Unmutated form | Mutated form |
|---|---|
| f | v |
| t | d |
| s | z |
| c | |
| k | g |
| b | mb |
| d | ndr |
| vowel | n + vowel g + vowel |
Other consonants do not change.
Unmutated case
[edit]The unmutated case form is used in citation. It further appears in all functions described above for independent pronouns:
- as the predicate in nominal clauses
- as the P argument of transitive verbs in dependent (including relative and nominalized) clauses
- following certain prepositions and ha 'only'
- in fronted (topicalized) position
Additionally, A arguments in independent transitive clauses appear in unmutated case, cross-referenced by the corresponding ergative or irrealis pronoun.
Mutated case
[edit]The mutated case form of the noun corresponds in function to both the absolutive and the genitive pronouns:
- as the S argument of independent intransitive and nominal clauses
Mate
die
zibaya-nia
uncle:MUT-3SG.GEN
meneßi
yesterday
(southern dialect; unmutated: sibaya)[36]
'His uncle died yesterday.'
- as the P argument of transitive verbs in independent clauses
I-rino
3SG.ERG
vakhe
rice:MUT
ina-gu
mother-1SG.GEN
(southern dialect; unmutated: fakhe)[35]
'My mother cooked rice.'
- as the stimulus with intransitive verbs expressing emotions or states of mind
- as possessor
omo
house
ga'a-gu
older.sibling:MUT-1SG.GEN
(southern dialect; unmutated: ka'a)[37]
'my brother's house'
- following certain prepositions
- as the S argument in nominalized intransitive clauses
- as the A argument in nominalized transitive clauses
- as the A argument in relative clauses with the P argument of a transitive verb as head
Notes
[edit]- ^ "It seems that the variable character of the two phonemes is the only consistent feature that distinguishes them from the regular stops in the same places of articulation, and from the regular alveolar trill." (Yoder 2010, p. 1)
- ^ The terminology used here follows the conventions commonly used in linguistic typology: S for the subject of intransitive verbs; A for the subject of transitive verbs; P for the object of transitive verbs.
References
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^ a b c Nias at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Brown 1997, p. 395.
- ^ a b c d Ethnologue
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 7.
- ^ Nothofer 1986, p. 95.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 8.
- ^ Sundermann 1913, pp. 5–6.
- ^ a b Brown 2005, p. 564.
- ^ Sundermann 1913, p. 6.
- ^ Halawa, Harefa & Silitonga 1983, p. 19, 21.
- ^ Yoder 2010, p. 1.
- ^ Brown 2001, pp. 27, 36–39.
- ^ Halawa, Harefa & Silitonga 1983, p. 23.
- ^ Halawa, Harefa & Silitonga 1983, p. 39.
- ^ Brown 1997, pp. 398–399.
- ^ Comrie 2013.
- ^ Donohue 2008, p. 27.
- ^ Brown 2005, p. 566.
- ^ Brown 1997, p. 400.
- ^ Brown 2001, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Sundermann 1913, pp. 40–45, 65–66.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 358.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 413.
- ^ Sundermann 1913, p. 108.
- ^ Sundermann 1913, p. 97.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 578.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 315.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 314.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 420.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 529.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 153.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 549.
- ^ Sundermann 1913, p. 81.
- ^ Brown 2005, p. 567.
- ^ a b Brown 2001, p. 537.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 559.
- ^ Brown 2001, p. 348.
Bibliography
[edit]- Brown, Lea (1997). "Nominal Mutation in Nias". In Odé, Cecilia; Wim Stokhof (eds.). Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 90-420-0253-0 – via books.google.com.
- Brown, Lea (2001). Grammar of Nias Selatan (PhD Thesis). University of Sidney: Department of Linguistics. hdl:2123/12669.
- Brown, Lea (2005). "Nias". In Adelaar, Alexander; Himmelmann, Nikolaus P. (eds.). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1286-0 – via books.google.com.
- Comrie, Bernard (2013), "Alignment of Case Marking of Full Noun Phrases", in Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.), The World Atlas of Language Structures Online, Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, retrieved 6 Jun 2019
- Donohue, Mark (2008). "Semantic alignment systems: what's what, and what's not". In Donohue, Mark; Søren Wichmann (eds.). The Typology of Semantic Alignment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Halawa, T.; Harefa, A.; Silitonga, M. (1983). Struktur Bahasa Nias [Nias Language Structure] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Retrieved 11 December 2021 – via repositori.kemdikbud.go.id.
- Nothofer, Bernd (1986). "The Barrier island languages in the Austronesian language family". In Paul Geraghty; Lois Carrington; Stephen A. Wurm (eds.). FOCAL II: Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. pp. 89–107. doi:10.15144/PL-C94.87.
- Sundermann, Heinrich (1913). Niassische Sprachlehre [Nias Grammar] (in German). 's-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff – via books.google.com.
- Yoder, Brendon (2010). "Prenasalization and trilled release of two consonants in Nias". Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session. 50. doi:10.31356/silwp.vol50.03.
External links
[edit]
- Nias wordlist, Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database
- Online dictionary of Nias
- Kamus Nias-Indonesia (Nias-Indonesian Dictionary)
- Articles on Nias Language (in Indonesian)
