Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals
(Redirected from Voiced alveolar nasal)
 | This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. (April 2018) |
| Voiced alveolar nasal | |
|---|---|
| n | |
| IPA number | 116 |
| Audio sample | |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | n |
| Unicode (hex) | U+006E |
| X-SAMPA | n |
| Braille |  |
The voiced alveolar nasal is a type of consonantal sound used in numerous spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar nasals is ⟨n⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is n.
The vast majority of languages have either an alveolar or dental nasal.[citation needed] There are a few languages that lack either sound but have [m], such as Yoruba, Palauan, and colloquial Samoan (however, these languages all have [ŋ]. An example of a language without [n] and [ŋ] is Edo). There are some languages (e.g. Rotokas) that lack both [m] and [n].
True dental consonants are relatively uncommon. In the Romance, Dravidian, and Australian languages, n is often called "dental" in the literature. However, the rearmost contact, which gives a consonant its distinctive sound, is actually alveolar or denti-alveolar. The difference between the Romance languages and English is not so much where the tongue contacts the roof of the mouth but the part of the tongue that makes contact. In English, it is the tip of the tongue (such sounds are termed apical), but in the Romance languages, it is the flat of the tongue just above the tip (such sounds are called laminal).
However, there are languages with true apical (or less commonly laminal) dental n. It is found in the Mapuche language of South America, where it is actually interdental. A true dental generally occurs allophonically before /θ/ in the languages that have it, as in English tenth. Similarly, a denti-alveolar allophone occurs in languages that have denti-alveolar stops, as in Spanish cinta.
Some languages contrast laminal denti-alveolar and apical alveolar nasals. For example, in the Malayalam pronunciation of Nārāyanan, the first n is dental, the second is retroflex, and the third alveolar.
A postalveolar nasal occurs in a number of Australian Aboriginal languages, including Djeebbana and Jingulu.[1]
Features
[edit]
Features of the voiced alveolar nasal:
- Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Because the consonant is also nasal, the blocked airflow is redirected through the nose.
- There are four specific variants of [n]:
- Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
- Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is a nasal consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the nose, either exclusively (nasal stops) or in addition to through the mouth.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
[edit]Dental or denti-alveolar
[edit]| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Belarusian[2] | новы/novy | [ˈn̪ovɨ] | 'new' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology | |
| Bulgarian[3] | жена/žena | [ʒɛˈn̪a] | 'woman' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |
| Catalan[4] | cantar | [kɐ̃n̪ˈt̪ɑ(ɾ)] | 'to sing' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /n/ before /t, d/.[4] See Catalan phonology | |
| Chuvash | шăна/šăna | [ʃɒn̪a] | 'a fly' | ||
| Dutch | Belgian | nicht | [n̻ɪxt̻] | 'niece' | Laminal denti-alveolar, sometimes simply alveolar. See Dutch phonology |
| English | month | [mʌn̪θ] | 'month' | Interdental. Allophone of /n/ before /θ, ð/. | |
| Esperanto | Esperanto | [espeˈran̪t̪o] | 'one who hopes' | See Esperanto phonology | |
| Finnish[5] | ranta | [ˈran̪t̪a] | 'beach' | Allophone of /n/ before /t̪/. | |
| French[6] | connexion | [kɔn̻ɛksjɔ̃] | 'connection' | Laminal denti-alveolar, sometimes simply alveolar. See French phonology | |
| Greek[7] | άνθος/ánthos | [ˈɐn̪θo̞s] | 'flower' | Interdental. Allophone of /n/. See Modern Greek phonology | |
| Hindustani | Hindi | नया / najā | [n̪əjaː] | 'new' | See Hindi–Urdu phonology |
| Urdu | نیا / najā | ||||
| Hungarian[8] | nagyi | [ˈn̪ɒɟi] | 'grandma' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Hungarian phonology | |
| Italian[9][10] | cantare | [kän̪ˈt̪äːre] | 'to sing' | Laminal denti-alveolar.[10] Allophone of /n/ before /t, d, s, z, t͡s, d͡z/.[9][10] See Italian phonology | |
| Irish | naoi | [n̪ˠɰiː] | 'nine' | Velarized. | |
| Japanese | 涙/namida | [n̪ämʲid̪ä] | 'tear' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Japanese phonology | |
| Kashubian | naprësk | [n̪aprəsk] | 'shower' | Laminal denti-alveolar.[11] | |
| Kazakh | көрінді/körindi | [kœɾɪn̪d̪ɪ] | 'it seemed' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /n/ before /t, d/. | |
| Kyrgyz | беделинде/bedelinde | [be̞d̪e̞lin̪d̪e̞] | 'in the authority' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /n/ before /t, d/. | |
| Latvian[12] | nakts | [n̪äkt̪s̪] | 'night' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Latvian phonology | |
| Macedonian[13] | нос/nos | [n̪o̞s̪] | 'nose' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Macedonian phonology | |
| Malayalam | പന്നി/panni | [pɐn̪ːi] | 'pig' | Interdental for some speakers. See Malayalam phonology | |
| Mapudungun[14] | müṉa | [mɘ̝ˈn̪ɐ̝] | 'male cousin on father's side' | Interdental.[14] | |
| Marathi | नख/nakh | [n̪əkʰ] | 'fingernail' | See Marathi phonology | |
| Nepali | सुगन्ध | [suˈɡʌn̪d̪ʱʌ] | 'fraɡrance' | Allophone of /n/ in neighbourhood of /t̪, t̪ʰ, d̪, d̪ʱ/. | |
| Polish[15] | nos | [n̪ɔs̪] | 'nose' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Alveolar before /t͡ʂ, d͡ʐ/. See Polish phonology | |
| Portuguese | General[16][17] | narina | [n̻ɐˈɾin̻ɐ] | 'nostril' | Laminal denti-alveolar. May nasalize preceding vowel (especially if stressed). Has [ɲ̟] as allophone, forming from clusters with [j], and before /i/. |
| Vernacular Paulista[18][19] | percebendo | [pe̞ʁse̞ˈbẽn̻u] | 'perceiving' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /d/ after a stressed nasal vowel in more stigmatized varieties. See Portuguese phonology | |
| Romanian[20] | alună | [äˈl̪un̪ə] | 'hazelnut' | Laminal denti-alveolar. See Romanian phonology | |
| Russian | наш/naš | [n̪aʂ] | 'our' | Laminal denti-alveolar, contrasts with palatalized form. See Russian phonology | |
| Scottish Gaelic[21] | nàdar | [ˈn̪ˠaːt̪aɾ] | 'nature' | Velarized. Contrasts with alveolar /n/ and palatal /ɲ/. | |
| Serbo-Croatian | student / студент / | [s̪t̪ǔd̪e̞n̪t̪] | 'student' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /n/ before /t, d, s, z, t͡s/. See Serbo-Croatian phonology | |
| Slovene | prevarant | [pɾeʋaˈɾǎːn̪t̪] | 'con artist' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /n/ before /t, d, s, z, t͡s/. See Slovene phonology | |
| Spanish | Most dialects | cantar | [kän̪ˈt̪är] | 'to sing' | Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /n/ before /t, d/. See Spanish phonology |
| Tamil | நாடு/nāḍu | [n̪ɑːɖɯ] | 'country' | See Tamil phonology | |
| Telugu | నములుట | [n̪amu] | 'To chew' | Occurs as an allophone of anuswara when followed by dental stops. | |
| Ukrainian[22] | наш/nash | [n̪ɑʃ] | 'our' | Laminal denti-alveolar, contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Uzbek[23] | nima/нимa/نىمه | [n̪imæ] | 'what' | Laminal denti-alveolar. | |
Alveolar
[edit]| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adyghe | нэфнэ/nėfnė | [nafna] | 'light' | ||
| Arabic | Standard | نور/nūr | [nuːr] | 'light' | See Arabic phonology |
| Assyrian | ܢܘܪܐ/nōra | [noːɾaː] | 'mirror' | ||
| Basque | ni | [ni] | 'I' | ||
| Bengali | নাক/naak/nāk | [naːk] | 'nose' | See Bengali phonology | |
| Cantonese | 年/nìhn | [ni:n˨˩] | 'year' | See Cantonese phonology | |
| Catalan[24] | neu | [ˈneʊ̯] | 'snow' | See Catalan phonology | |
| Czech | na | [na] | 'on' | See Czech phonology | |
| Dutch[25] | nacht | [nɑxt] | 'night' | See Dutch phonology | |
| English | nice | 'nice' | See English phonology | ||
| Finnish | annan | [ˈɑnːɑn] | 'I give' | See Finnish phonology | |
| German | fünf | [fʏnf] | 'five' | See German phonology | |
| Georgian[26] | კანი/k'ani | [ˈkʼɑni] | 'skin' | ||
| Greek | νάμα/náma | [ˈnama] | 'communion wine' | See Modern Greek phonology | |
| Gujarati | નહી/nahi | [nəhi] | 'no' | See Gujarati phonology | |
| Hawaiian[27] | naka | [naka] | 'to shake' | See Hawaiian phonology | |
| Hebrew | נבון/navon | [navon] | 'wise' | See Modern Hebrew phonology | |
| Italian[28] | nano | [ˈnäːno] | 'dwarf' | See Italian phonology | |
| Irish | binn | [bʲiːnʲ] | 'peak' | Palatalized. | |
| Khmer | នគរ nôkôr | [nɔkɔː] | 'kingdom' | See Khmer phonology | |
| Korean | 나라/nara | [nɐɾɐ] | 'Country' | See Korean phonology | |
| Kurdish | Northern | giyanewer | [ˈgʲɪjä:ˈnɛwɛˈɾ] | 'animal' | See Kurdish phonology |
| Central | گیانلەبەر/gîyânlabar | [ˈgʲiːäːnˈlæbæˈɾ] | |||
| Southern | [ˈgʲiːäːnˈlabaˈɾ] | ||||
| Kyrgyz[29] | банан/banan | [baˈnan] | 'banana' | ||
| Malay | nasi | [näsi] | 'cooked rice' | ||
| Malayalam | ആന | [äːn] | 'elephant' | See Malayalam phonology | |
| Maltese | lenbuba | [lenbuˈba] | 'truncheon' | ||
| Mandarin | 難/难/nán | [nan˧˥] | 'difficult' | See Mandarin phonology | |
| Mapudungun[14] | müna | [mɘ̝ˈnɐ̝] | 'enough' | ||
| Ngwe | Mmockngie dialect | [nøɣə̀] | 'sun' | ||
| Nepali | नक्कल/nakkal | [nʌkːʌl] | 'imitation' | See Nepali phonology | |
| Odia | ନାକ/nāka | [näkɔ] | 'nose' | ||
| Okinawan | ʻnmu | [ʔn̩mu] | 'potato' | Can occur as onset, nucleus, or coda. Allophone of [m], [ŋ], and [ɴ] in coda, but phonemic elsewhere. | |
| Persian | نون/nun | [nun] | 'bread' | ||
| Pirahã | gíxai | [níˈʔàì̯] | 'you' | ||
| Polish[15] | poncz | [ˈpɔn̥t͡ʂ] | 'punch' | Allophone of /n/ (which is normally laminal denti-alveolar [n̪]) before /t͡ʂ, d͡ʐ/. See Polish phonology | |
| Punjabi | ਨੱਕ/nakk | [nəkː] | 'nose' | ||
| Scottish Gaelic[30] | anail | [ˈãnal] | 'breath' | Contrasts with velarised dental /n̪ˠ/ and palatal /ɲ/. | |
| Slovak | na | [nä] | 'on' | ||
| Slovene[31] | Common | novice | [noˈʋìːt̪͡s̪ɛ́] | 'news' | |
| Some speakers | konj | [ˈkɔ̂nː] | 'horse' | See Slovene phonology | |
| Spanish[32] | nada | [ˈnäð̞ä] | 'nothing' | See Spanish phonology | |
| Swahili | ndizi | [n̩dizi] | 'banana' | ||
| Tagalog | nipis | [nipis] | 'thin' | Tagalog phonology | |
| Thai | นอน/non | [nɔːn] | 'sleep' | See Thai phonology | |
| Toki Pona | noka | [noka] | 'foot' | ||
| Turkish | neden | [ne̞d̪æn] | 'reason' | See Turkish phonology | |
| Tamil | மனசு/manasu | [mʌnʌsɯ] | 'mind', 'heart' | See Tamil phonology | |
| Vietnamese[33] | bạn đi | [ɓanˀ˧˨ʔ ɗi] | 'you're going' | Occurs only before alveolar consonants. See Vietnamese phonology | |
| Welsh | nain | [nain] | 'grandmother' | See Welsh phonology | |
| Western Apache | non | 'cache' | |||
| West Frisian | nekke | [ˈnɛkə] | 'neck' | ||
| Yi | ꆅ/na | [na˧ ] | 'hurt' | ||
| Zapotec | Tilquiapan[34] | nanɨɨ | [nanɨˀɨ] | 'lady' | contrasts with a fortis alveolar nasal that is not represented in the orthography. |
Postalveolar
[edit]| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Catalan[4] | panxa | ['pän̠ɕə][35] | 'belly' | Allophone of /n/ before /ʃ, ʒ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/, may be alveolo-palatal instead.[4] See Catalan phonology | |
| Djeebbana[36] | barnmarramarlón̠a | [ban̠maramal̠ɔn̪a] | 'they two swam' | Result of rhotic plus alveolar [n].[36] | |
| English | Australian[37] | enrol | [əṉˈɹ̠ɔo̯ɫ] | 'enrol' | Allophone of /n/ before /r/.[37] See Australian English phonology |
| Italian[38] | angelo | [ˈän̠ʲːd͡ʒelo] | 'angel' | Palatalized laminal; allophone of /n/ before /ʃ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/.[38] See Italian phonology | |
Variable
[edit]| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | Scottish[39] | nice | [nəis] | 'nice' |
Laminal denti-alveolar for some speakers, alveolar for other speakers.[39][40] |
| Welsh[40] | |||||
| German | Standard[41] | Lanze | [ˈlant͡sə] | 'lance' | Varies between laminal denti-alveolar, laminal alveolar and apical alveolar.[41] See Standard German phonology |
| Norwegian | Urban East[42] | mann | [mɑn̻ː] | 'man' | Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and laminal alveolar.[42] See Norwegian phonology |
| Swedish | Central Standard[43] | nu | [nʉ̟ː] | 'now' | Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and alveolar, with the former being predominant.[43] See Swedish phonology |
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ Chadwick, Neil J. (1975). A descriptive study of the Djingili language. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
- ^ Padluzhny (1989), pp. 49–50.
- ^ Klagstad (1958), p. 46.
- ^ a b c d Rafel (1999), p. 14.
- ^ Suomi, Toivanen & Ylitalo (2008), p. 29.
- ^ Fougeron & Smith (1993), p. 73.
- ^ Arvaniti (2007), p. 15.
- ^ Siptár & Törkenczy (2000), pp. 75–76.
- ^ a b Bertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 133.
- ^ a b c Canepari (1992), p. 58.
- ^ Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
- ^ Nau (1998), p. 6.
- ^ Lunt (1952), p. 1.
- ^ a b c Sadowsky et al. (2013), pp. 88–89.
- ^ a b Rocławski (1976), p. 136.
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
- ^ Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 230.
- ^ (in Portuguese) Unesp's digital collection – The deleting of /d/ in the morpheme of the gerund in São José do Rio Preto's accent Archived 2012-12-31 at archive.today
- ^ (in Portuguese) The deletting of /d/ in the morpheme of the gerund in São José do Rio Preto's accent – PDF
- ^ Chițoran (2001), p. 10.
- ^ Borgstrøm (1937), p. 115.
- ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 10.
- ^ Sjoberg (1963), p. 12.
- ^ Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 53.
- ^ Gussenhoven (1992), p. 45.
- ^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
- ^ Ladefoged (2005), p. 139.
- ^ Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 117.
- ^ Kara (2003), p. 11.
- ^ Oftedal (1956), p. 121.
- ^ Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21.
- ^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255.
- ^ Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
- ^ Merrill (2008), p. 108.
- ^ Valencian pronunciation: ['pän̠t͡ɕä]. What are transcribed /ʃ, ʒ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/ in Catalan are actually alveolo-palatal sibilants [ɕ, ʑ, t͡ɕ, d͡ʑ].
- ^ a b Dixon (2002), p. 585.
- ^ a b Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009).
- ^ a b Canepari (1992), pp. 58–59.
- ^ a b Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 4.
- ^ a b Wells (1982), p. 388.
- ^ a b Mangold (2005), p. 49.
- ^ a b Kristoffersen (2000), p. 22.
- ^ a b Riad (2014), p. 46.
References
[edit]- Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11
- Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
- Bertinetto, Marco; Loporcaro, Michele (2005). "The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 35 (2): 131–151. doi:10.1017/S0025100305002148.
- Canepari, Luciano (1992), Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 978-88-08-24624-0
- Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618, S2CID 249411809
- Chițoran, Ioana (2001), The Phonology of Romanian: A Constraint-based Approach, Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-016766-5
- Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223, S2CID 249414876
- Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
- Dixon, Robert M. W. (2002). Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development. Cambridge UP. ISBN 9780521473781.
- Fougeron, Cecile; Smith, Caroline L (1993), "Illustrations of the IPA:French", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 23 (2): 73–76, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004874, S2CID 249404451
- Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (2): 45–47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X, S2CID 243772965
- Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191
- Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003), Kyrgyz, Lincom Europa, ISBN 978-3895868436
- Keane, Elinor (2004), "Tamil", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 111–116, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001549
- Klagstad, Harold L. Jr. (1958), The Phonemic System of Colloquial Standard Bulgarian, American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages, pp. 42–54
- Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
- Lunt, Horace G. (1952), Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language, Skopje
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7
- Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University
- Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
- Mateus, Maria Helena; d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000), The Phonology of Portuguese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823581-1
- Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
- Nau, Nicole (1998), Latvian, Lincom Europa, p. 66, ISBN 978-3-89586-228-1
- Okada, Hideo (1999), "Japanese", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, ISBN 978-0-52163751-0
- Padluzhny, Ped (1989), Fanetyka belaruskai litaraturnai movy, Навука і тэхніка, ISBN 978-5-343-00292-8
- Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980), Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego, Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski
- Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 978-84-7283-446-0
- Riad, Tomas (2014), The Phonology of Swedish, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-954357-1
- Rocławski, Bronisław (1976), Zarys fonologii, fonetyki, fonotaktyki i fonostatystyki współczesnego języka polskiego, Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego
- Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–121, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628
- Sadowsky, Scott; Painequeo, Héctor; Salamanca, Gastón; Avelino, Heriberto (2013), "Mapudungun", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 87–96, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000369
- Scobbie, James M; Gordeeva, Olga B.; Matthews, Benjamin (2006). "Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: an overview" (PDF). Edinburgh: QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2014-06-01.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
- Siptár, Péter; Törkenczy, Miklós (2000), The Phonology of Hungarian, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823841-6
- Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963), Uzbek Structural Grammar, Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 18, Bloomington: Indiana University
- Suomi, Kari; Toivanen, Juhani; Ylitalo, Riikka (2008), Finnish Sound Structure, Oulu: Oulu University Press, ISBN 978-951-42-8983-5
- Thompson, Laurence (1959), "Saigon phonemics", Language, 35 (3): 454–476, doi:10.2307/411232, JSTOR 411232
- Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, vol. 2: The British Isles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
