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Testing out anchors

RESPONDING TO OTHER EDITORS

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{{ping|Wolfdog}} this one can include multiple editors
{{replyto|Wolfdog}}
{{u|Wolfdog}}
The last two look exactly the same and both render a colon

WRAP TEXT from a multiïndented discussion

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{{od}}

EDIT WARRING

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Wikipedia:Administrators' noticeboard/Edit warring

  • <ref>{{cite article|last1=|first1=|year=|work=|title=|publisher=|url=}}</ref>

CITATION with authors

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  • Exampleson, Jeff; Notrealson, Lisa (1615). "Example article in the 1600s". Example Work. Oh Yeah Inc. pp. 15–16. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)

CITATION without authors

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  • "Example article in the 1600s". Example Work. Oh Yeah Inc. 1615. p. 16.

MOVE DISCUSSION / REQUEST MOVES

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Wikipedia:Requested_moves/Controversial

DISPUTE HELP

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Seeking outside help for dispute resolution:

etc.

NOTES and AUDIO

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  • %22
  • &pg=PA320 means p. 320 of the Google Book website
  • [ɚ] ⓘ {{IPAblink|ɚ|audio=y}}
  • /aɪ/ ⓘ {{IPA-en|aɪ||en-us-eye.ogg}}
  • iceⓘ {{Audio|en-us-ice.ogg|''ice''|help=no}}
  • [ˈæʔməsfɪɚ] ⓘ {{IPA-all|ˈæʔməsfɪɚ||en-us-atmosphere.ogg}}
  • /x/ ⓘ {{IPAc-en|audio=ga-Fianna Fáil.ogg|x}}
  • {{efn|name=note|A NOTE HERE.}} |||| {{Reflist|group=note}}
    • {{efn|name=note}}
  • <ref group=note>Reference</ref> {{Reflist|group=note}}
  • {{efn|A NOTE HERE.}} {{Notelist}}
  • European French: [akadjɛ̃] {{IPA|fr|akadjɛ̃|label=[[European French]]:}}

WIKITABLE EXAMPLE

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Accent Strong STRUT fronting Strong GOAT fronting Strong GOOSE fronting Strong LOT fronting
Northern No No No Yes
Midland Yes Yes Yes No
Western No No Yes No

ENGLISH VOWELS BIG TABLE

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Vowels

[edit]
Pure vowels (Monophthongs)
Wikipedia diaphoneme New York City realization Example words
/æ/ [æ] listenⓘ act, pal, trap
[ɛə~eə~ɪə] listenⓘ bath, mad, pass
/ɑː/ [ɑ~ɑ̈~ɒ(ə)] listenⓘ blah, father
/ɒ/ [ɑ~ɑ̈] listenⓘ bother, lot, wasp
[ɔə~oə~ʊə] dog, loss, cloth
/ɔː/ all, bought, taught, saw
/ɛ/ [ɛ] dress, met, bread
/ə/ [ə] about, syrup, arena
/ɪ/ [ɪ~ɪ̈] hit, skim, tip
/iː/ [i~ɪi][1][2] beam, chic, fleet
/ʌ/ [ʌ̈] bus, flood
/ʊ/ [ʊ] book, put, should
/uː/ [u] or [ʊu~ɤʊ~ɤu][2] food, glue, new
Diphthongs
/aɪ/ [ɑɪ~ɒɪ~äɪ] listenⓘ ride, shine, try
[äɪ] listenⓘ bright, dice, pike
/aʊ/ [a̟ʊ~æʊ][3] now, ouch, scout
/eɪ/ [eɪ~ɛɪ] listenⓘ lake, paid, rein
/ɔɪ/ [ɔɪ~oɪ] listenⓘ boy, choice, moist
/oʊ/ [ɔʊ~ʌʊ] goat, oh, show
Vowels followed by /r/
/ɑːr/ [ɒə] listenⓘ
(rhotic: [ɒɹ~ɑɹ]; older: [ɑ̈ə]) 		barn, car, park
/ɪər/ [ɪə~iə] listenⓘ (rhotic: [ɪɹ~iɹ]) fear, peer, tier
/ɛər/ [ɛə~eə] (rhotic: [ɛɹ~eɹ]) bare, bear, there
/ɜːr/ [ɝ] listenⓘ (older: [əɪ]) burn, first, herd
[ɝ] or [ʌ(ː)~ʌə][4][5] her, were, stir
/ər/ [ə] (rhotic: [ɚ]) doctor, martyr, pervade
/ɔːr/ [ɔə~oɐ] (rhotic: [ɔɹ~oɹ]) hoarse, horse, poor
score, tour, war
/ʊər/
/jʊər/ [juə~juɐ] (rhotic: [juɹ])[6] cure, Europe, pure

Bahamian Vowels

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Vowels

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Pure vowels (Monophthongs)
Wikipedia
diaphoneme 		Bahamian
English 		Example words
/æ/ [ä] bath, man, trap,
/ɑː/ [ɑ] blah, father
/ɒ/ bother, lot, wasp
[ɑː] (lower class),
[ɔː] (upper class) 		dog, loss, cloth
/ɔː/ all, bought, taught, saw
/ə/ [ə] about, syrup, arena
Diphthongs
/aɪ/ [äː] (Black),
[äi] or [ʌɪ] (White) 		ride, shine, try
[äi], [ʌɪ] (also White) bright, dice, pike
/aʊ/ [aː, ɑɔ]] (Black),
[aɛ] (White) 		now, ouch, scout
/eɪ/ [eɪ > e] lake, paid, rein
/ɔɪ/ [əi] boy, choice, moist
/oʊ/ [ɵu > oː] (Black),
[ou] (White) 		goat, oh, show
Vowels followed by /r/
/ɑːr/ [ɑ̈ː] barn, car, park
/ɪər/ [eᴈ] fear, peer, tier
/ɛər/ bare, bear, there
/ɜːr/ [əi] burn, first, herd
/ər/ [ə] doctor, martyr, pervade
/ɔːr/ [oᴈ] hoarse, horse, poor
score, tour, war

Dublin Englishes

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Caption text
Local Dublin Standard Irish English
(Mainstream Dublin)		 Advanced Dublin
BATH/DANCE æː~aː aː aː
CHOICE äɪ~ɒɪ ɒɪ ɔɪ~oɪ
CLOTH äː~ɑː ɒ ɔː
DRESS ɛ ɛ ɛ~æ
GOAT ʌo~ʌɔ oʊ~əʊ əʊ
GOOSE Example Example Example
Syllable-final /l/ l l ɫ
MARY ɛː ɛː ɛ(ː)
MOUTH ɛʊ aʊ~ɛʊ eʊ~ɛʊ
NORTH äːɹˠ~ɑːɹˠ ɒːɹˠ~oːɻ oːɻ
PRIZE əɪ~ɐɪ aɪ~ɑɪ (ɑɪ)~ɐɪ
/r/ ɹˠ ɹˠ~ɻ ɻ
NURSE ɛːɹˠ & ʊːɹˠ ɚː ɚː~øːɻ
START æːɹːˠ~ɛːɹˠ äːɹˠ~ɑɻ äːɻ~ɑɻ
STRUT ʊ ʌ̈~ʊ ɤ~ʌ̈
Syllable-initial /t/ t t t(s)
Intervocalic /t/ ʔ, h, ∅ θ̠, ʔ, ɾ ɾθ̠,
THOUGHT äː ɒː ɒː~ɔː, oː SPLIT
TRAP æ æ~a a~ä
Example Example Example Example
special PALM Example Example Example
FORCE Example Example Example


mood
goose
tooth 		good
foot
book 		blood
flood
brother 		cut
dull
fun 		put
full
sugar
Middle English oː oː oː u u
Great Vowel Shift uː uː uː u u
Early Shortening (Shakespeare?) uː uː u u u
Quality adjustment uː uː ʊ ʊ ʊ
Foot–strut split uː uː ɤ ɤ ʊ
Later shortening (1800 or later USA) uː ʊ ɤ ɤ ʊ
Quality adjustment uː ʊ ʌ ʌ ʊ
RP output uː ʊ ʌ ʌ ʊ
Stages of the FOOT–STRUT split and beyond, as described by Wells (1982:199)
Accent name Most populous urban center Strong /aʊ/ fronting Strong /oʊ/ fronting Strong /u/ fronting Strong /ɑr/ fronting Cot–caught merger Pin–pen merger /æ/ raising system
General American No No No No Mixed No pre-nasal
Inland Northern Chicago No No No Yes No No general
Mid-Atlantic States Philadelphia Yes Yes Yes No No No split
Midland Indianapolis Yes Yes Yes No Mixed Mixed pre-nasal
New York City New York City Yes No No[7] No No No split
North-Central (Upper Midwestern) Minneapolis No No No Yes Yes No pre-nasal & pre-velar
Northern New England Boston No No No Yes Yes No pre-nasal
Southern San Antonio Yes Yes Yes No Mixed Yes Southern
Western Los Angeles No No Yes No Yes No pre-nasal
Western Pennsylvania Pittsburgh Yes Yes Yes No Yes Mixed pre-nasal

flapping in /-tən/ is fairly common with -ance, -ant, -ence, -ent words, as in competence, impotent, inheritance, omnipotent, etc. Maybe the key is that /t/ in these words is not immediately followed by stress. But I also feel I occasionally hear flapping in important, written, etc.

Non-rhotic accent mergers (not shared in rhotic accents):

  • ə-ər (Marta/martyr) RP, all
  • ɑː-ɑːr (father/farther) (calve/carve) RP, all
  • ɔː-ɔːr (pawn/porn) (caught/court) RP, all
  • ɔː-ʊər (paw/poor/pour) RP, all
  • ɪ-ər (batted/battered)
  • oʊ-ɔːr (dough/door)
  • oʊ-ʊər (show-sure)
  • ɒ-ɔːr (often/orphan) (shot/short) RPish, NENE
  • ɒ-ɑːr (god/guard) SENE, NYCE
  • ʌ-ɜːr (bud/bird) J, RPish
  • ɔɪ-ɜːr (oil/earl) NYCE
  • others...

South: 86 (poem) to 79 (route)

Combining information from the phonetic research through interviews of Labov et al. (2006) and the phonological research through surveys of Vaux (2004), Hedges (2017) performed a latent class analysis (cluster analysis) to generate six clusters of American English features that naturally occurred together, presuming that each of the six would match one of the six broad dialect regions roughly delineated by Labov: the North, South, West, New England, Midland, and Mid-Atlantic (including New York City). The clusters were largely consistent with the two earlier studies.

Based directly on Hedges (2017)'s results, below is a chart of particular pronunciations of particular words that have more than an 86% likelihood of occurring in particular regions. The defining pronunciations are: pajamas with either the phoneme /æ/ or the phoneme /ɑː/; coupon with either /juː/ or /uː/; Monday with either /eɪ/ or /i/; Florida with either /ɔː/ or other possibilities (such as /ɑː/); caramel with either two or three syllables; handkerchief with either /ɪ/ or /i/; lawyer as either "l/ɔɪj/er" or "l/ɒj/er"; poem with either one or two syllables; route with either /uː/ or /aʊ/; mayonnaise with either two or three syllables; and been with either /ɪ/ or other possibilities (such as /ɛ/). Parentheses in the chart indicate that the likelihood of the pronunciation inside them occurs ovewhelmingly in a particular region (well over 50% likelihood) but still does not meet the >86% threshold set by Hedges (2017) for what necessarily defines a dialect. Blank boxes in the chart indicate that neither pronunciation occurs with an overwhelming likelihood, and, in some of these instances, the data is simply inconclusive or unclear.

Presumed dialect region pajamas coupon Monday Florida caramel handkerchief lawyer poem route mayonnaise been
North /æ/ /juː/ /eɪ/ /ɔː/ 2 syllables (/ɪ/) (/ɔɪj/)
South /ɑː/ (/eɪ/) (/ɔː/) 3 syllables /ɪ/ /ɒj/ 2 syllables (/ɪ/)
West /ɑː/★ /eɪ/ /ɔː/ /ɪ/ /ɔɪj/ (2 syllables) (/ɪ/)
New England /juː/ /eɪ/ 3 syllables /ɔɪj/ (2 syllables) /uː/ 3 syllables
Midland /æ/ /uː/ /eɪ/ /ɔː/ 2 syllables /ɔɪj/★ (2 syllables)
Mid-Atlantic
& NYC		 /ɑː/ /uː/ /eɪ/ 3 syllables /ɪ/ /ɔɪj/ (2 syllables) /uː/ (3 syllables) /ɪ/

★The two pronunciations marked by this star are discrepancies of the latent class analysis, since they conflict with Vaux (2004)'s surveys. The surveys show that /æ/ is the much more common vowel for pajamas in the West, and /ɔɪj/ and /ɒj/ are in fact both common variants for lawyer in the Midland.

Trudgill's Accent Region Accent Name Strongest Centres very few cars made up path long hill
Northeast Geordie Newcastle/Sunderland i juː ː eː ʊ a ŋ hɪl
Central and Lower North Yorkshire Leeds/Bradford ɪ juː ː eː ʊ a ŋ ɪl
Central Lancashire Lancashire}} Rossendale ɪ juː ːɹ [note 1] eː ʊ a ŋg ɪl
Merseyside Scouse Liverpool i juː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋg ɪl
Northwest Midlands Manc Manchester/Salford ɪ juː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋg ɪl
West Midlands Brummie Birmingham/Coventry i juː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋg ɪl
Northeast Midlands East Midlands Lincoln i [note 2] juː [note 3] ː eɪ [note 4] ʊ a ŋ ɪl [note 5]
Southwest West Country Bristol/Plymouth i juː ːɹ eɪ [note 6] ʌ æ ŋ ɪl [note 7]
East Anglia East Anglian all of Norfolk and Suffolk i uː ː eɪ ʌ æ ŋ (h)ɪl
Home Counties London/Estuary London/Brighton & Hove i juː ː eɪ ʌ ɑː ŋ ɪo
RP i juː ː eɪ ʌ ɑː ŋ hɪl
Trudgill's Accent Region Accent Nickname Regional Centre very few cars made up path long hill
Welsh Welsh Cardiff? ? juː ː [eː]/[eɪ] split ʌ /a/ [a] ŋ hɪl
Northeast Geordie Newcastle/Sunderland i juː ː eː ʊ a ŋ hɪl
Central and Lower North Yorkshire Leeds/Bradford ɪ juː ː eː ʊ a ŋ ɪl
Central Lancashire Lanky Lancaster ɪ juː ːɹ eː ʊ a ŋg ɪl
Humberside East Midlands Scunthorpe i juː ː eː ʊ a ŋ ɪl
Merseyside Scouse Liverpool i juː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋg ɪl
Northwest Midlands Manc Manchester/Salford ɪ juː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋg ɪl
West Midlands Brummie Birmingham/Coventry i juː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋg ɪl
Central Midlands East Midlands Nottingham/Derby ɪ juː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋ ɪl
Northeast Midlands East Midlands Lincoln i juː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋ ɪl
East Midlands East Midlands Leicester/Rutland i uː ː eɪ ʊ a ŋ ɪl
Upper Southwest West Country Hereford/Gloucester i juː ːɹ eɪ ʌ æ ŋ ɪl
Central Southwest West Country Bristol/Taunton i juː ːɹ eɪ ʌ æ ŋ ɪo
Lower Southwest West Country all of Cornwall and Devon i juː ːɹ eː ʌ æ ŋ ɪl
South Midlands East Midlands Northampton/Bedford i uː ː eɪ ʌ æ ŋ ɪo
East Anglia East Anglian all of Norfolk and Suffolk i uː ː eɪ ʌ æ ŋ (h)ɪl
Home Counties London/Estuary London/Brighton & Hove i juː ː eɪ ʌ ɑː ŋ ɪo
Received Pronunciation (RP) i juː ː eɪ ʌ ɑː ŋ hɪl

16

Accent City long night blind land arm hill seven bat
Northumberland Morpeth a i ɪ a ar hɪ s a
Lower North XXX a i ɪ a a ɪ s a
Lancashire Lancaster ɒ i aɪ ɒ ar ɪ s a
Staffordshire Stafford ɒ aɪ aɪ a a ɪ s a
South Yorkshire Lancaster ɒ i ɪ a a ɪ s a
Lincolnshire Lincoln ɒ aɪ ɪ a a ɪ s a
Leicestershire Leicester ɒ aɪ aɪ a a ɪ s a
Western Southwest Truro? ɒ aɪ aɪ a ar ɪ z a
Northern Southwest Bristol? ɒ aɪ aɪ ɒ ar ɪ s a
Eastern Southwest Dorechester? ɒ aɪ aɪ a ar ɪ s a
Southeast Sussex ɒ aɪ aɪ æ ar ɪ s æ
Central East Northampton? ɒ aɪ aɪ æ a ɪ s æ
Eastern Counties Norwich ɒ aɪ aɪ æ a hɪ s æ

Variation

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A fair to strong degree of variation exists within Chicano English phonologically, and its precise boundaries are difficult to delineate, perhaps due to separate origins of the dialect in the Southwest as well as the Midwest.[8] One sub-variety, referenced as Tejano English,[9] is used mainly in southern Texas, and California sub-varieties are also widely studied, especially of metropolitan Los Angeles.[10]

New Mexico

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Some scholars recognize a Chicano sub-variety of north-central New Mexico that has been uniquely influenced by New Mexican Spanish.[11] A recent study found that native English-Spanish bilingual Chicanos in New Mexico have a lower/shorter/weaker voice-onset time than typical native monolingual English speakers.[12] Another researcher notices of a monolingual Northern New Mexico Chicano English

a vowel shift pattern unique to a region whose communities are characterized by a situation wherein the use of Ch[icano]E[nglish] transcends age, race and socioeconomic status so that speakers include: teachers, doctors, the clergy, homemakers, radio announcers, business people, teenagers, blue collar employees and even non-chicanos.[13]

Here are certain lexical/vocabulary features common to the region:

  • A la máquina [ä lä ˈmäːkinä] (literally "to the machine" in Spanish) is usually used as a startled expression, sometimes shortened to a la.[11]
  • Acequia, the word for ditch in Spanish, is common within the entire Rio Grande Valley.[14]
  • Canales, Spanish for rain and street gutters, in the northern parts of the state.[14]
  • Corazón, the word for heart in Spanish, can be connotative of sweetheart, dear, courage, and spirit.[15]
  • O sí (seguro),[11] literally "Oh yeah (sure)" in Spanish, is used as an ironic reaction or as a sincere questioning of a statement.
  • Ombers [ˈɒmbɚːz], an interjection commonly used to express playful disapproval or shaming of another, similar to tsk tsk.[11]
  • Or what? and Or no? are added to end of sentences to exemplify the needed confirmation in a prior statement.[11] Examples, "Can you see, or no?" or "Are we late, or what?"
  • Vigas, the Spanish word for rafters, especially common in the northern part of the state.[14]

Additionally, New Mexico chile has had a large impact on New Mexico's cultural heritage, so large in fact, that it was entered into the congressional record as being spelled 'chile', and not chili.[16][17] In New Mexico there is a differentiation for chili, which most New Mexicans equate to chili con carne.[18]

XXXXXXXXXXXX

Gliding vowels (diphthongs)
Lexical set and phoneme Shakespeare's vowel
LOT /ɒ/
⟨a⟩ in want, wasp, etc. 		o̞→ɔ
æ→æ~ɛ̞ː
TRAP /æ/
PALM /ɑː/
FACE /eɪ/
⟨ay⟩ in day, etc.
ɛːi→ɛː
FLEECE /iː/
⟨ea⟩ in meat, lean, etc. 		iː→iː
ɛ̝ː→eː
DRESS /ɛ/
KIT /ɪ/ i~ɪ
HAPPY /i/ ɪi→ɘi
PRICE /aɪ/
CHOICE /ɔɪ/[19]
THOUGHT /ɔː/ ɒːʊ→ɒː
GOAT /oʊ/
⟨ol⟩, ⟨ou⟩, ⟨ow⟩ in old, etc. 		oː→oː
ʊu→əu
MOUTH /aʊ/
GOOSE /uː/ o̝ː→uː
FOOT /ʊ/
⟨u⟩ in bush, put, etc.[20]
ʊ→ɤ
STRUT /ʌ/
NORTH /ɔːr/ ɒr
⟨or⟩ in work, world, etc.
NURSE /ɜːr/
ar~ɐr
START /ɑːr/
SQUARE /ɛər/
⟨ear⟩, ⟨eir⟩, ⟨ere⟩ in bear, etc.
er~ər>ɪr?
NEAR /ɪər/

XXXXXXXXXXXX

Gliding vowels (diphthongs)
Lexical set and phoneme Early Modern vowel
LOT /ɒ/
⟨a⟩ in want, wasp, etc. 		[ɔ] listenⓘ
[æː~æ̝~ɛ̞] listenⓘ
TRAP /æ/
PALM /ɑː/
FACE /eɪ/
⟨ay⟩ in day, etc.
[ɛːi~ɛː]
FLEECE /iː/
⟨ea⟩ in meat, lean, etc. 		[iː] listenⓘ
[ɛ̝~eː] listenⓘ
DRESS /ɛ/
KIT /ɪ/ [i~ɪ][21]
HAPPY /i/ [ɪi~ɘi]
PRICE /aɪ/
CHOICE /ɔɪ/[22]
GOAT /oʊ/
⟨ol⟩, ⟨ou⟩, ⟨ow⟩ in old, etc. 		[oː] listenⓘ
[əu~ou] listenⓘ
MOUTH /aʊ/
GOOSE /uː/ [uː][23] listenⓘ
FOOT /ʊ/
⟨u⟩ in bush, put, etc.[24]
[ɤ] listenⓘ
STRUT /ʌ/
NORTH /ɔːr/ [ɒr]
⟨or⟩ in work, world, etc.
NURSE /ɜːr/
[ar~ɐr] listenⓘ
START [ar]
SQUARE /ɛər/
⟨ear⟩, ⟨eir⟩, ⟨ere⟩ in bear, etc.
[er~ər>ɪr]? listenⓘ
NEAR /ɪər/

XXXXXXXXXXXX

  • NEAR/SQUARE includes rehearse, merry, herd, and sometimes heard (the last of which could also be NURSE)
  • FORCE/NORTH/word all seem to be of one class.
  • LETTER seemed to have the vowel of NEAR/SQUARE.
  • NURSE (heard, earth, etc.) and the single NORTH word "reward" seems merged with START (hard, regard)
  • On Early English Pronunciation, with Especial Reference to... 960s
  • Nature more rhymes with latter
  • [ʒ] was [zɪ] (or [z] in pleasure)
  • [ʃ] was [sɪ] (or [t] in nature) p. 98 (A Shakespeare phonology)
  • was used [æ]
  • IS and WAS occasionally used a final [s]'
  • If Shakespeare pronounced the "gh" in "-ight", it was "hardly more than a weak [ç] and possibly mere [h]".

El Paso is the only Texan city with high FACE.

Pure vowels (Monophthongs)

The defining pure vowels of Irish English:

The following pure vowel sounds are defining characteristics of Irish English:

  • The vowel /ʌ/, as in cut or run, is typically centralised in the mouth and often somewhat more rounded than other standard English varieties, such as Received Pronunciation in England or General American in the United States.
  • Most Irish English varieties make some distinction between the "broad" a and "flat" a of Received Pronunciation, whereas General American, for example, makes no distinction.
  • There is inconsistency regarding the lot–cloth split and the cot–caught merger; certain Irish English dialects have these phenomena while others do not.
  • Any and many are pronounced to rhyme with nanny, Danny, etc. by very many speakers, i.e. with each of these words pronounced with [æ].[25]

All pure vowels of various Hiberno-English dialects:

English
diaphoneme 		Ulster West &
South-West Ireland 		Dublin
Local↔Non-local 		Supraregional
Ireland 		Example words
flat /æ/ [äː~a] [æ] [æ]↔[a] [æ~a] add, land, trap
/ɑː/ and broad /æ/ [äː~ɑː] [æː~aː] [æː~aː] [aː]1 bath, calm, dance
conservative /ɒ/ [ɒ] [ä] [ä]↔[ɑ~ɒ]↔[ɔ]4 [ɑ] lot, top, wasp
divergent /ɒ/ [ɔː~ɒː] [aː~ä] [aː~ä]↔[ɔː] [ɒ] dog, loss, off
/ɔː/ [ɔː~ɒː] [aː~ä] [aː~ä]↔[ɒː]↔[ɔː~oː]4 [ɒː] all, bought, saw
/ɛ/ [ɛ]2 dress, met, bread
/ə/ [ə] about, syrup, arena
/ɪ/5 [ë~ɘ~ɪ̈] [ɪ] hit, skim, tip
/iː/5 [i(ː)]3 beam, chic, fleet
/ʌ/ [ʌ̈~ʊ] [ʊ]↔[ɤ] [ʌ̈~ʊ] bus, flood, what
/ʊ/ [ʉ] [ʊ] book, put, should
/uː/ [ʉ(ː)] [ʊu~uː] 3 [uː] food, glue, new

Footnotes:

^1 In southside Dublin's once-briefly fashionable "D4" (or "Dartspeak") accent, the "/ɑː/ and broad /æ/" set becomes rounded as [ɒː].[26]

^2 In South-West Ireland, /ɛ/ before /n/ or /m/ is raised to [ɪ].[27]

^3 Due to the local Dublin accent's phenomenon of "vowel breaking", /iː/ may be realised in this accent as [iʲə] in a closed syllable, and, in the same environment, /uː/ may be realised as [ʊuʷə].

^4 In the more recently emerging non-local Dublin (or "new Dublin") accent, the conservative variant of the vowel /ɒ/ may be as raised as [ɔ], and the vowel /ɔː/ may be as raised as [ɔː~oː].

^5 Unstressed syllable-final /iː/ or /ɪ/ is realised in Ulster accents uniquely as [e~ɪ].[28]

Other notes:

  • In some highly conservative Irish English varieties, words spelled with ea and pronounced with [iː] in RP are pronounced with [eː], for example meat, beat, and leaf.
  • In words like took where the spelling "oo" usually represents /ʊ/, conservative speakers may use /uː/. This is most common in local Dublin and the speech of north-east Leinster.
Gliding vowels (Diphthongs)

The defining diphthongs of Hiberno-English:

The following gliding vowel (diphthong) sounds are defining characteristics of Irish English:

  • The first element of the diphthong /aʊ/, as in ow or doubt, may move forward in the mouth in the east (namely, Dublin) and supraregionally; however, it may actually move backward throughout the entire rest of the country. In the north alone, the second element is particularly moved forward, as in Scotland.
  • The first element of the diphthong /ɔɪ/, as in boy or choice, is slightly or significantly lowered in all geographic regions except the north.
  • The diphthong /eɪ/, as in rain or bay, is most commonly monophthongised to [eː]. Furthermore, this often lowers to /ɛ/ in words such as gave and came (sounding like "gev" and "kem").[citation needed]

All diphthongs of various Hiberno-English dialects:

English
diaphoneme 		Ulster West &
South-West Ireland 		Local
Dublin 		Non-Local
Dublin 		Supraregional
Ireland 		Example words
/aɪ/ [ɛɪ~ɜɪ] [ɐɪ~əɪ]1 [äɪ]2 [aɪ~ɑɪ] bright, ride, try
/aʊ/ [ɐʏ~ɛʉ] [ɐʊ~ʌʊ] [ɛʊ~eʊ]1 [æʊ~ɛʊ] [aʊ~ɛʊ] now, ouch, scout
/eɪ/ [eː(ə)] [eː] lame, rein, stain
/ɔɪ/ [ɔɪ] [əɪ~ɑɪ] [aɪ~äɪ] [ɒɪ]2 [ɒɪ] boy, choice, moist
/oʊ/ [oː] [ʌo~ʌɔ] [oʊ] [oʊ~əʊ] goat, oh, show

Footnotes:' ^1 Due to the local Dublin accent's phenomenon of "vowel breaking", aɪ may be realised in that accent as [əjə] in a closed syllable, and, in the same environment, aʊ may be realised as [ɛwə]. [əʊ] 2 In the more recently emerging non-local Dublin (or "new Dublin") accent, the diphthong /aɪ/ may be realised with a back starting point as [ɑɪ], and the diphthong /ɔɪ/ may be realised with a raised starting point as [ɔɪ~oɪ].

R-coloured vowels

The defining r-coloured vowels of Hiberno-English:

The following r-coloured vowel features are defining characteristics of Hiberno-English:

  • Rhoticity: Every major accent of Hiberno-English pronounces the letter "r" whenever it follows a vowel sound, though this is weaker in the local Dublin accent due to its earlier history of non-rhoticity. Rhoticity is a feature that Hiberno-English shares with Canadian English and General American but not with Received Pronunciation.
  • The distinction between /ɔr/ and /ɔər/ is almost always preserved, so that, for example, horse and hoarse are not merged in most Irish accents.

All r-coloured vowels of various Hiberno-English dialects:

English
diaphoneme 		Ulster West &
South-West Ireland1 		Local
Dublin1, 2 		Non-Local
Dublin3 		Supraregional
Ireland 		Example words
/ɑr/ [ɑɻ~ɑɹ] [æːɹ~aɹ] [aːɹ~äɹ]4 [äːɹ~ɑɹ] car, guard, park
/ɪər/ [iːɹ~iɚ] fear, peer, tier
/ɛər/ [(ɛ)ɚː] [ɛːɹ~eɹ]5 bare, bear, there
/ɜr/6 [ɚː] [ɛːɹ] or [ʊːɹ]6 [ɚː]5 burn, first, learn
/ər/ [ɚ]7 doctor, martyr, pervade
/ɔr/8 [ɒːɚ~ɔːɹ] [äːɹ~ɑːɹ] [ɒːɹ~ɔːɹ] for, horse, war
/ɔər/8 [oːɚ~oːɹ] [ɔːɹ] [ɒːɹ] [oːɹ] four, hoarse, wore
/ʊər/ [uːɹ~uɚ]9 moor, poor, tour
/jʊər/ [juːɹ~juɚ]9 cure, Europe, pure

Footnotes:

^1 In older varieties of the conservative accents, like local Dublin, the "r" sound before a vowel may be pronounced as a tapped [ɾ], rather than as the typical approximant [ɹ̠].

^2 Every major accent of Irish English is rhotic (pronounces "r" after a vowel sound). The local Dublin accent is the only one that during an earlier time was non-rhotic, though it usually very lightly rhotic today,[29] with a few minor exceptions. The rhotic consonant in this and most other Irish accents is an approximant [ɹ̠].

^3 The "r" sound of the mainstream non-local Dublin accent is more precisely a velarised approximant [ɹˠ], while the "r" sound of the more recently emerging non-local Dublin (or "new Dublin") accent is more precisely a retroflex approximant [ɻ].

^4 In southside Dublin's once-briefly fashionable "Dublin 4" (or "Dortspeak") accent, /ɑr/ is realised as [ɒːɹ].

^5 In the more recently emerging non-local Dublin (or "new Dublin") accent, /ɛər/ and /ɜr/ may both be realised as [øːɻ].

^6 In local Dublin, West/South-West, and other very conservative and traditional Irish English varieties ranging from the south to the north, the phoneme /ɜr/ is split into two distinct phonemes depending on spelling and preceding consonants, which have sometimes been represented as /ɛr/ versus /ʊr/, and often more precisely pronounced as [ɛːɹ] versus [ʊːɹ]. As an example, the words earn and urn are not pronounced the same, as they are in most dialects of English around the world. In the local Dublin and West/South-West accents, /ɜr/ when after a labial consonant (e.g. fern), when spelled as "ur" or "or" (e.g. word), or when spelled as "ir" after an alveolar stop (e.g. dirt) are pronounced as [ʊːɹ]; in all other situations, /ɜr/ is pronounced as [ɛːɹ].[30] Example words include:

In non-local Dublin, younger, and supraregional Irish accents, this split is seldom preserved, with both of the /ɜr/ phonemes typically merged as [ɚː].

^7 In rare few local Dublin varieties that are non-rhotic, /ər/ is either lowered to [ɐ] or backed and raised to [ɤ].

^8 The distinction between /ɔr/ and /ɔər/ is widely preserved in Ireland, so that, for example, horse and hoarse are not merged in most Irish English dialects; however, they are usually merged in Belfast and new Dublin.

^9 In local Dublin, due to the phenomenon of "vowel breaking" [(j)uːɹ] may in fact be realised as [(j)uʷə(ɹ)].

Consonants

The defining consonants of Hiberno-English:

The consonants of Hiberno-English mostly align to the typical English consonant sounds. However, a few Irish English consonants have distinctive, varying qualities. The following consonant features are defining characteristics of Hiberno-English:

  • H-fulness: Unlike most English varieties of England and Wales, which drop the word-initial /h/ sound in words like house or happy, Hiberno-English always retains word-initial /h/.
  • The phonemes /ð/ (as in the) and /θ/ (as in thin) are pronounced uniquely in most Hiberno-English. /ð/ is pronounced as [d] or [d̪], depending on specific dialect; and /θ/ is pronounced as [t] or [t̪].
  • The phoneme /t/, when appearing at the end of word or between vowel sounds, is pronounced uniquely in most Hiberno-English; the most common pronunciation is as a "slit fricative".
  • The phoneme /l/ is almost always of a "light" or "clear" quality (i.e. not velarised), unlike Received Pronunciation, which uses both a clear and a dark "L" sound, or General American, which pronounces all "L" sounds as somewhat dark.
  • Rhoticity: The pronunciation of historical /r/ is nearly universal in Irish accents of English. Like with General American (but not Received Pronunciation), this means that the letter "r", if appearing after a vowel sound, is always pronounced (in words such as here, cart, or surf).

Unique consonants in various Hiberno-English dialects:

English diaphoneme Ulster1 West &
South-West Ireland 		Local
Dublin2 		Non-Local
Dublin 		Supraregional
Ireland 		Example words
/ð/ [ð] [d] [d̪] this, writhe, wither
dark /l/
(/l/ at the end of a syllable
or between a vowel and
a consonant) 		[l] or [ɫ] [l] [l] or [ɫ] ball, soldier, milk
/r/3 [ɻ] [ɹˠ] prevocalic/intervocalic: [ɹˠ] or [ɾ]
postvocalic: [∅] or [ɹˠ] 		Mainstream: [ɹˠ]
New: [ɻ] 		[ɹˠ] or [ɻ] rot, shirt, tar
/t/ between vowels [ɾ], [ʔ], or [∅] [ɾ] or [θ̠]4 [ʔh] [ɾθ̠]4 [ɾ] or [θ̠]4 battle, Italy, water
/t/ in word-final position [t] or [ʔ] [θ̠] [h] or [∅] [θ̠] cat, get, right
/θ/ [θ] [t] [t̪] lethal, thick, wrath
/hw/5 [w] [ʍ] [w] [ʍ] or [w] awhile, whale, when

Footnotes:

^1 In traditional, conservative Ulster English, /k/ and /g/ is palatalised before a low front vowel.[31]

^2 Local Dublin also undergoes cluster simplification, so that stop consonant sounds occurring after fricatives or sonorants may be left unpronounced, resulting, for example, in "poun(d)" and "las(t)".[27]

^3 Rhoticity: Every major accent of Irish English is strongly rhotic (pronounces "r" after a vowel sound), though to a weaker degree with the local Dublin accent.[32] The accents of local Dublin and some smaller eastern towns like Drogheda were historically non-rhotic and now only very lightly rhotic or variably rhotic, with the rhotic consonant being an alveolar approximant, [ɹ]. In extremely traditional and conservative accents (exemplified, for instance, in the speech of older speakers throughout the coumtry, even in South-West Ireland, such as Mícheál Ó Muircheartaigh and Jackie Healy-Rae), the rhotic consonant, before a vowel sound, can also be an alveolar tap, [ɾ]. The rhotic consonant for the northern Ireland and new Dublin accents is a retroflex approximant, [ɻ]. Dublin's retroflex approximant has no precedent outside of northern Ireland and is a genuine innovation of the past two decades. A guttural/uvular [ʁ] is found in north-east Leinster.[33] Otherwise, the rhotic consonant of virtually all other Irish accents is the postalveolar approximant, [ɹ].

^4 The symbol [θ̠] is used here to represent the voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative, sometimes known as a "slit fricative",[32] whose articulation is described as being apico-alveolar.[34]

^5 Overall, /hw/ and /w/ are being increasingly merged in supraregional Irish English, for example, making wine and whine homophones, as in most varieties of English around the world.[34]

The symbol "~" is used here to indicate that pronunciations on either side of it form a spectrum of possibilities. The symbol ">" indicates that the pronunciations to its left are more widespread and pronunciations to its right are more marginal.

Listed below is every well-documented variety of North American English, according to its most defining features (the combinations of which each variety shares with no other). Unless otherwise specified, all American English varieties are characterized by a continuous /æ/ nasal system (in which the short a vowel is tensed only before nasal consonants, such as in words like man and lamb, but not in words like map and lack), the lot-cloth split, a lack of R-dropping (any variety below in which some significant degree of postvocalic R-dropping has been documented among its speakers is labelled simply "R-dropping"), and the father-bother merger.

Accent Southern /ai/ Midland /ai/ Southern /ai/ by % pen-pin cot-caught Southern dialect level
Abilene no no 0 close trans 0
Atlanta both both varying varying trans(unmer) 0-1
Amarillo yes no low merged merged 3
Austin no yes low-very varying trans 0
Central Florida no no 0 merged trans 0
Charleston no no 0 varying trans(mer) 0-1?
Corpus Christi no no 0 merged trans 0-2
El Paso ?? ?? ?? merged trans(mer) ??
Houston yes ?? low 1
Indianapolis no no (mostly) varying (low at best) varying trans 0
Kansas City both both varying (mid at best) varying trans(merg) 0-1
South Florida no no 0 unmerged trans 0
St. Louis no both varying (low at best) varying unmerged 0
Tulsa no no 0 varying trans/merg 0-1?
Dialect (accent) region /aʊ/ position /oʊ/ position /uː/ position cot and caught vowels
Canada and Western USA central central to back front to central merged
New York metropolitan area front back central to back unmerged
Northeastern and North-Central USA central to back back central to back
Southeastern USA front front to central front to central
General USA front to central central to back central

Ethnic and other Northern American English

[edit]

Ethnic and other Northern American English

[edit]

LEFT OFF AT SAVANNAH ENGLISH

Exampleson, Jeff (1615). "Example article in the 1600s". Example Work. Toronto: Oh Yeah Inc. pp. 15–16.

  • /aɪ/ ⓘ {{IPA-en|aɪ||en-us-eye.ogg}}
  • iceⓘ {{Audio|en-us-ice.ogg|''ice''|help=no}}
  • [ˈæʔməsfɪɚ] ⓘ {{IPA-all|ˈæʔməsfɪɚ||en-us-atmosphere.ogg}}
  • <ref group=note>Reference</ref> {{Reflist|group=note}}
  1. ^ This traditional feature of rhoticity in Lancashire is increasingly giving way to non-rhoticity. See: Beal, Joan (2004). "English dialects in the North of England: phonology". A Handbook of Varieties of English (pp. 113-133). Berlin, Boston: Mouton de Gruyter. Retrieved 17 Jan. 2018, from https://www.degruyter.com/view/books/9783110175325/9783110175325.1.113/9783110175325.1.113.xml. p. 127.
  2. ^ [ɪ] defines the Central Midlands (centred on Nottingham and Derby).
  3. ^ [uː] defines the East Midlands (centred on Leicester and Rutland) and partly defines the South Midlands (centred on Northampton and Bedford).
  4. ^ [eː] defines South Humberside or North Lincolnshire (centred on Scunthorpe).
  5. ^ [ɪo] defines the South Midlands (centred on Northampton and Bedford).
  6. ^ [eː] defines the Lower Southwest (Cornwall and Devon).
  7. ^ [ɪo] defines the Central Southwest.
  1. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 232
  2. ^ a b Heggarty, Paul; et al., eds. (2013). "Accents of English from Around the World: New York City (trad.)". University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on March 5, 2023. Retrieved June 26, 2023.
  3. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 233
  4. ^ Labov (1966), p. 29, 242–244, 316
  5. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 508 ff.
  6. ^ Newman, 2014, p. 52.
  7. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:101, 103)
  8. ^ Santa Ana, 2004a, p. 419
  9. ^ Santa Ana, 2004a, p. 433
  10. ^ Santa Ana, 2004a, p. 419
  11. ^ a b c d e Wilson, Damian (2015-05-21). The Burqueno Dialect. YouTube. Retrieved 2015-05-25. Short video interview with Damian Wilson, an Assistant Professor & Coordinator of Sabine Ulibarri Spanish as a Heritage Language Program at the University of New Mexico.
  12. ^ Balukas, Colleen; Koops, Christian (2014). "Spanish-English bilingual voice onset time in spontaneous code-switching". International Journal of Bilingualism. 19 (4): 423–443. doi:10.1177/1367006913516035. ISSN 1367-0069. S2CID 144159300. Retrieved 2015-05-25.
  13. ^ Hernández, Pilar (1993). "Vowel shift in Northern New Mexico Chicano English. Mester 22: 227-234.
  14. ^ a b c "New Mexico Facts". Encyclopedia.com articles about New Mexico. June 10, 2010. Retrieved January 5, 2015.
  15. ^ Madrid, A.L. (2011). Transnational Encounters: Music and Performance at the U.S.-Mexico Border. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-987611-2. Retrieved August 3, 2015.
  16. ^ King, L.S. (2009). Frommer's Santa Fe, Taos and Albuquerque. Frommer's Complete Guides. Wiley. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-470-43795-7. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
  17. ^ Smith, A.; Kraig, B. (2013). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. OUP USA. p. 382. ISBN 978-0-19-973496-2. Retrieved 2015-05-31.
  18. ^ Montaño, M.C. (2001). Tradiciones Nuevomexicanas: Hispano Arts and Culture of New Mexico. University of New Mexico Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-8263-2137-4. Retrieved 2015-05-31.
  19. ^ Wells 209
  20. ^ Wells 199
  21. ^ Wells 187
  22. ^ Wells 209
  23. ^ Wells 187 for foot
  24. ^ Wells 199
  25. ^ Hickey (2007:317)
  26. ^ Hickey, Raymond. Dublin English: Evolution and Change. John Benjamins Publishing: 2005, pp. 46-48
  27. ^ a b (de Gruyter 2004, p. 84)
  28. ^ Cite error: The named reference de Gruyter 2004 91 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  29. ^ de Gruyter 2004, pp. 92
  30. ^ Hickey (1984:330)
  31. ^ de Gruyter 2004, pp. 88
  32. ^ a b Hickey (1984:234)
  33. ^ Hickey (2007:320)
  34. ^ a b (de Gruyter 2004, p. 93)
  35. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:103)
  36. ^ Chambers, Jack K. (2010). "English in Canada" (PDF). p. 14. Retrieved 2012-07-20.
  37. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:89)
  38. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:219)
  39. ^ Freeman, Valerie (2014). "Bag, beg, bagel: Prevelar raising and merger in Pacific Northwest English" (PDF). University of Washington Working Papers in Linguistics. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
  40. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:56)
  41. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:107)
  42. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:123–4)
  43. ^ Dinkin, A., & Labov, William (2009). "Dialect Boundaries and Phonological Change in Upstate New York", ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
  44. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:48)
  45. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:182)
  46. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:54, 238)
  47. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:133)
  48. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:127, 254)
  49. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:276–8)
  50. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:276–8)
  51. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:301)
  52. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:297)
  53. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:301)
  54. ^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:297)
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