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Coordinates: 34°31′N 69°11′E / 34.517°N 69.183°E / 34.517; 69.183
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"Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan" redirects here. For the group, see Taliban. For the state that existed from 1996 to 2001, see Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001).

Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
  • د افغانستان اسلامي امارت (Pashto)
    Də Afġānistān Islāmī Imārat
  • امارت اسلامی افغانستان (Dari)
    Imārat-i Islāmī-yi Afğānistān
2021–2026
Motto: لا إله إلا الله، محمد رسول الله
Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh
"There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God." (Shahadah)
Anthem: دا د باتورانو کور
"Dā Də Bātorāno Kor"
"This Is the Home of the Brave"[2]
Capital
and largest city
Kabul
34°31′N 69°11′E / 34.517°N 69.183°E / 34.517; 69.183[3]
Official languages
Ethnic groups
(2019 unofficial estimates)[a][5][6][7]
Religion
(2015)
Demonym(s)Afghan[b][10][11]
GovernmentUnitary totalitarian[12] provisional theocratic Islamic emirate[13]
Hibatullah Akhundzada
Hasan Akhund (acting)
Abdul Hakim Haqqani
LegislatureNone[c]
Formation
History 
1709
1747
• Emirate
1823
27 May 1863
19 August 1919
• Kingdom
9 June 1926
• Republic
17 July 1973
27–28 April 1978
28 April 1992
27 September 1996
26 January 2004
15 August 2021
• Established
2021
• Disestablished
2026
Area
• Total
652,867[18] km2 (252,073 sq mi) (40th)
• Water (%)
negligible
Population
• July 2024 estimate
36–50 million[d] (36th)
• Density
64/km2 (165.8/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $91.668 billion[19]
• Per capita
Increase $2,174[19] (179th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $17.329 billion[19]
• Per capita
Increase $411[19] (190th)
HDI (2022)Decrease 0.462[20][21]
low (182nd)
CurrencyAfghani (افغانى) (AFN)
Time zoneUTC+4:30
Lunar Calendar[23] (Afghanistan Time)
DST is not observed[22]
Drives onRight
ISO 3166 codeAF
Internet TLD.af
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
Taliban
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,[e] was a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It was bordered by Pakistan to the east and south,[f] Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to the northeast, and China to the northeast and east. It occupied 652,864 square kilometers (252,072 sq mi) of land, the country was predominantly mountainous with plains in the north and the southwest, which are separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range. Kabul was the country's capital and largest city. Afghanistan's population was estimated to be between 36–50 million.[d]

Human habitation in Afghanistan dates to the Middle Paleolithic era. Popularly referred to as the graveyard of empires,[33] the land has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and a US-led coalition. Afghanistan also served as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals, among others, rose to form major empires.[34] Because of the various conquests and periods in both the Iranian and Indian cultural spheres,[35][36] the area was a center for Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam.[37] The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani Afghan Empire in the 18th century,[38] although Dost Mohammad Khan is sometimes considered to be the founder of the first modern Afghan state.[39] Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between the British Empire and the Russian Empire. From India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in the First Anglo-Afghan War; the Second Anglo-Afghan War saw a British victory. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in 1926. This monarchy lasted almost half a century, until Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973, following which the Republic of Afghanistan was established.

Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The conflict began in 1978 when a communist revolution established a socialist state (itself a response to the dictatorship established following a coup d'état in 1973), and subsequent infighting prompted the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in 1979. Mujahideen fought against the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan War and continued fighting among themselves following the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989. The Taliban controlled most of the country by 1996, but their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 US invasion of Afghanistan. The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after capturing Kabul, ending the 2001–2021 war.[40] As of June 2024, the Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized.

Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including lithium, iron, zinc, and copper. It is the second-largest producer of cannabis resin,[41] and third largest of both saffron[42] and cashmere.[43] The country is a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and a founding member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. Due to the effects of war in recent decades, the country has dealt with high levels of terrorism, poverty, and child malnutrition. Afghanistan remains among the world's least developed countries, ranking 182nd on the Human Development Index. Afghanistan's gross domestic product (GDP) is $81 billion by purchasing power parity and $20.1 billion by nominal values. Per capita, its GDP is among the lowest of any country as of 2020.

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Afghanistan

The Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the Afghan National Security Forces. Following 2002, nearly five million Afghans were repatriated.[44] The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011,[45] dropping to about 16,000 in 2018.[46] In September 2014 Ashraf Ghani became president after the 2014 presidential election where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred.[47][48][49] On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led Operation Resolute Support was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF.[50][51] Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces[52] and continue their fight against the Taliban.[53] A report titled Body Count concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.[54]

A map of Afghanistan showing the 2021 Taliban offensive

On 19 February 2020, the US–Taliban deal was made in Qatar. The deal was one of the critical events that caused the collapse of the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF);[55] following the signing of the deal, the US dramatically reduced the number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical edge in fighting the Taliban insurgency, leading to the Taliban takeover of Kabul.[56]

Second Taliban era

[edit]
Further information: Aftermath of the Afghanistan War (2001–2021)

NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg announced on 14 April 2021 that the alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May.[57] Soon after NATO troops began withdrawing, the Taliban launched an offensive against the Afghan government and quickly advanced in front of collapsing Afghan government forces.[58][59] The Taliban captured the capital city of Kabul on 15 August 2021, after regaining control over a vast majority of Afghanistan. Several foreign diplomats and Afghan government officials, including president Ashraf Ghani,[60] were evacuated from the country, with many Afghan civilians attempting to flee along with them.[61] On 17 August, first vice president Amrullah Saleh proclaimed himself caretaker president and announced the formation of an anti-Taliban front with a reported 6,000+ troops[62][63] in the Panjshir Valley, along with Ahmad Massoud.[64][65] However, by 6 September, the Taliban had taken control of most of Panjshir province, with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains.[66] Clashes in the valley ceased mid-September.[67]

According to the Costs of War Project, 176,000 people were killed in the conflict, including 46,319 civilians, between 2001 and 2021.[68] According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, at least 212,191 people were killed in the conflict.[69] Though the state of war in the country ended in 2021, armed conflict persists in some regions[70][71][72] amid fighting between the Taliban and the local branch of the Islamic State, as well as an anti-Taliban Republican insurgency.[73]

Taliban fighters in Kabul on a captured Humvee following the 2021 fall of Kabul

The Taliban government was led by former supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada[74] and acting prime minister Hasan Akhund, who took office on 7 September 2021.[75][76] Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban[77] and was a deputy prime minister of the previous emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise between moderates and hardliners.[78] A new, all-male cabinet was formed, which included Abdul Hakim Haqqani as minister of justice.[79][80] On 20 September 2021, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter from acting minister of foreign affairs Amir Khan Muttaqi to formally claim Afghanistan's seat as a member state for their official spokesman in Doha, Suhail Shaheen. The United Nations did not recognize the previous Taliban government and chose to work with the then government-in-exile instead.[81]

Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's August 2021 takeover of the country; the World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted their payments.[82][83] More than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage in October 2021.[84] Human Rights Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing widespread famine due to an economic and banking crisis.[85]

The Taliban had significantly tackled corruption, improving on the corruption perceptions index from 174th to 150th best out of 180 countries from 2021 to 2022,[86] but dropping to 162nd in 2023.[87] The Taliban have also reportedly reduced bribery and extortion in public service areas.[86]

At the same time, the human rights situation in the country had deteriorated.[88] Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7 million refugees returned to Afghanistan;[89] however, in 2021, 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in Iran and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced.[90]

In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered the expulsion of Afghans from Pakistan.[91] Iran also decided to deport Afghan nationals back to Afghanistan.[92] Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an "inhuman act".[93] Afghanistan faced a humanitarian crisis in late 2023.[94]

On 10 November 2024, Afghanistan's Foreign Ministry confirmed that Taliban representatives would attend the 2024 United Nations Climate Change Conference, marking the first time the country participated since the Taliban's return to power in 2021. Afghanistan had been barred from previous summits due to the lack of global recognition of the Taliban regime. However, the Taliban's environmental officials stressed that climate change is a humanitarian issue, not a political one, and should be addressed regardless of political differences.[95]

Fall of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

[edit]

On 15 June 2025, US president Donald Trump ordered for the United States Armed Forces to begin all-out war with the Taliban government to help support the NRF and AFF's cause, with the restoration of the Resolute Support Mission. A draft of over 25,000 troops would begin a direct landing in the Panjshir Valley inside of the Hindukush mountains. Soon after the fall of Kabul on January 18 2026, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was dissolved and replaced with a militia government-led resistance that still holds control over the south of Afghanistan until the present day.

Government

[edit]
Main article: Politics of Afghanistan
The Arg (the Presidential palace) in Kabul, photographed in 2020

Following the effective collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan during the 2021 Taliban offensive, the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September.[96] As of June 2024, no other country has formally recognized the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the de jure government of Afghanistan.[97] According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Afghanistan in 2023 was the third least electoral democratic country in Asia.[98]

Development of Taliban government

[edit]
Main article: Government of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
See also: Cabinet of Afghanistan § Islamic Emirate (2021–present)
Hasan Akhund
Acting Prime Minister
Sirajuddin Haqqani
First Deputy Leader and Acting Interior Minister
Mullah Yaqoob
Second Deputy Leader and Acting Defense Minister
Abdul Ghani Baradar
Third Deputy Leader and Acting First Deputy Prime Minister

On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin party, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, met with both Hamid Karzai, the former President of Afghanistan, and Abdullah Abdullah, the former chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former Chief Executive, in Doha, Qatar, with the aim of forming a national unity government.[99][100] President Ashraf Ghani, having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either Tajikistan or Uzbekistan, emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afghanistan.[101][102] Many figures within the Taliban generally agreed that continuation of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan may, if correctly applied, be workable as the basis for the new religious state as their objections to the former government were political, and not religious.[103]

Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September after Jumu'ah. It was added that Hibatullah Akhundzada would be officially named Emir, with cabinet ministers being revealed at the Arg in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head of government as Prime Minister, while other important positions would go to Sirajuddin Haqqani and Mullah Yaqoob. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to the cabinet.[104]

In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Hibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of Saayid Ali Khamenei, and would be based out of Kandahar. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as Prime minister. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body known as the Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. Abdul Hakim Haqqani was likely to be promoted to Chief justice. According to the report, the new government would take place within the framework of an amended 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan.[105] Government formation was delayed due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community.[106] It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. Reports claimed that this culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan, however this was denied by Baradar himself.[107][108]

As of early September 2021 the Taliban were planning the cabinet to be men-only. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women, protested in Herat and Kabul, calling for women to be included.[109] The acting Cabinet announced on 7 September was men-only, and the Ministry of Women's Affairs was abolished.[96]

Until it's fall, no country had recognized the Taliban government as the legitimate authority of Afghanistan, with the U.N adding that recognition was impossible so long as restrictions on female education and employment remained.[97][110] On 16 September 2024, the Taliban suspended polio vaccination campaigns in Afghanistan, as reported by the United Nations, posing a significant risk to global polio eradication efforts.[111]

Foreign relations

[edit]
Main article: Foreign relations of Afghanistan
See also: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)

The second Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was internationally unrecognized, but had notable unofficial ties with China, Pakistan, and Qatar.[112][113] Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of NATO and allied nations, particularly the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and Turkey. In 2012, the United States and the then-republic in Afghanistan signed their Strategic Partnership Agreement in which Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally.[114] Such qualification was rescinded by former US President Joe Biden in July 2022.[115]

Military

[edit]
Main article: Afghan Armed Forces

The Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan captured a large amount of weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the Afghan National Security Forces following the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul. The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83 billion.[116][117]

Human rights

[edit]
See also: Human rights in Afghanistan, Women in Afghanistan, LGBT rights in Afghanistan, Treatment of women by the Taliban, and Afghan refugees

Homosexuality was taboo in Afghan society;[118] according to the old Penal Code, homosexual intimacy was punished by up to a year in prison.[119] Under Sharia law offenders can be punished by death.[120][121] However, an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between children and older men (typically wealthy warlords or elite people) called bacha bazi persisted for enough time.

Religious minorities such as Sikhs,[122] Hindus,[123] and Christians had reportedly faced persecution.[124][125]

Until the fall of the Government, all women in Afghanistan had been required by law to wear full-body coverings when in public (either a burqa or an abaya paired with a niqāb, which leaves only the eyes uncovered).[126][127] First Deputy Leader Sirajuddin Haqqani claimed the decree is only advisory and no form of hijab is compulsory in Afghanistan,[128] though this contradicts the reality.[129] It has been speculated that there is a genuine internal policy division over women's rights between hardliners, including leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, and pragmatists, though they publicly present a united front.[130] Another decree was issued shortly after the first, requiring female TV presenters to cover their faces during broadcasts.[131] Until the collapse of the Emirate, suicides among women had become more common, and the country would now be one of the few where the rate of suicide among women surpassed that among men.[132][133][134]

In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved Afghanistan's Human Rights Commission along with four other government departments, citing the country's budget deficit.[135]

In January 2025, International Criminal Court issued two warrants against the Taliban supreme leader Haibatullah Akhundzada and the Chief judge, Abdul Hakim Haqqani, for committing the crimes against humanity with the oppression and persecution of Afghan women and girls, and deprived of their freedom of movement, the rights to control their bodies, to education, and to a private and family life, while the alleged resistance and opposition were brutally suppressed with murder, imprisonment, torture, rape, and other forms of sexual violence, since 2021. ICC member states are obliged to arrest wanted persons if they are on their territory.[136]

Economy

[edit]
Main article: Economy of Afghanistan
Workers processing pomegranates (anaar), for which Afghanistan is famous in Asia

Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $20.1 billion in 2020, or $81 billion by purchasing power parity (PPP).[137] Its GDP per capita is $2,459 (PPP) and $611 by nominal.[137] Despite having $1 trillion or more in mineral deposits,[138] it remains one of the world's least developed countries. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability.[139] The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million, mainly fruits and nuts. It has $2.8 billion in external debt.[140] The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%).[141]

Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation[142] and the Afghani (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar.[143] A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the Afghanistan International Bank, New Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, and the First Micro Finance Bank.

Afghan rugs are one of Afghanistan's main exports.

One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country.[144] Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town near Jalalabad.[145][146][147] Similar development projects have also begun in Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, and other cities.[148] An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year.[149]

Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.[150] Afghan rugs are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items.[151]

Afghanistan is a member of WTO, SAARC, ECO, and OIC. It holds an observer status in SCO. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.[152]

Until the fall of the Emirate, the United States had frozen about $9 billion in assets belonging to the Afghan central bank,[153] blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in US bank accounts.[154][155]

The GDP of Afghanistan was estimated to have dropped by 20% following the Taliban return to power. Following this, after months of free-fall, the Afghan economy began stabilizing, as a result of the Taliban's restrictions on smuggled imports, limits on banking transactions, and UN aid. In 2023, the Afghan economy began seeing signs of revival. This has also been followed by stable exchange rates, low inflation, stable revenue collection, and the rise of trade in exports.[156] In the third quarter of 2023, the Afghani rose to be the best performing currency in the world, climbing over 9% against the US dollar.[157]

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The last census in Afghanistan was conducted in 1979, and was itself incomplete. Due to the ongoing conflict in the country, no official census has been conducted since.[4]
  2. ^ Other demonyms that have been used are Afghani,[8] Afghanese and Afghanistani (see Afghans for further details)[9]
  3. ^ Afghanistan is a pure autocracy, with all law ultimately originating from the supreme leader. Consensus rule was initially used among the Taliban, but was phased out as the supreme leader monopolized control in the months following the 2021 return to power.[14][15][16] There is an advisory Leadership Council, however its role is in question as the supreme leader has not convened it for many months (as of March 2023), and increasingly rules by decree.[17]
  4. ^ a b The last census was conducted in 1979. Sources disagree about the current population: All figures are mid-year.
  5. ^
    • Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي امارت
    • Dari: امارت اسلامی افغانستان
  6. ^ The Government of India regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of Kashmir to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan as Gilgit-Baltistan.[24]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ "Document 77746". Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  2. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (19 June 2013). "The Taliban's Qatar Office: Are Prospects for Peace Already Doomed?". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  3. ^ Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in Geonames.org (CC BY)
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Population Matters was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ "Afghanistan's ethnic mosaic". The Times of India. 23 August 2021. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  6. ^ "Distribution of Afghan population by ethnic group 2020". 20 August 2021. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  7. ^ "Afghan Ethnic Groups: A Brief Investigation". 14 August 2011. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  8. ^ Dictionary.com. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Reference.com Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (Retrieved 13 November 2007).
  9. ^ Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. Reference.com (Retrieved 13 November 2007). Archived 28 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ "Constitution of Afghanistan". 2004. Archived from the original on 20 September 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
  11. ^ Afghan | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. the Cambridge English Dictionary. ISBN 9781107660151. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
  12. ^
  13. ^
  14. ^ T. S. Tirumurti (26 May 2022). "Letter dated 25 May 2022 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1988 (2011) addressed to the President of the Security Council" (PDF). United Nations Security Council. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
  15. ^ Kraemer, Thomas (27 November 2022). "Afghanistan dispatch: Taliban leaders issue new orders on law-making process, enforcement of court orders from previous government". JURIST. Archived from the original on 17 January 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  16. ^ Dawi, Akmal (28 March 2023). "Unseen Taliban Leader Wields Godlike Powers in Afghanistan". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
  17. ^ Oxford Analytica (10 March 2023). "Senior Afghan Taliban figures move to curb leader". Expert Briefings. Emerald Expert Briefings. oxan–db (oxan–db). doi:10.1108/OXAN-DB276639. [Akhundzada] has not convened the Taliban's Leadership Council (a 'politburo' of top leaders and commanders) for several months. Instead, he relies on the narrower Kandahar Council of Clerics for legal advice.
  18. ^ Central Statistics Office Afghanistan
  19. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Afghanistan)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 October 2024. Retrieved 27 December 2024.
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  21. ^ Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
  22. ^ "Half Hour and 45-Minute Time Zones". timeanddate.com. Archived from the original on 15 February 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2022.
  23. ^ "Taliban Changes Solar Year to Hijri Lunar Calendar". Hasht-e Subh Daily. 26 March 2022. Archived from the original on 4 September 2022. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  24. ^ "Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2008.
  25. ^ "Library". nsia.gov.af. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  26. ^ "Estimated Populatin of Afghanistan 2024-25". National Statistics and Information Authority. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  27. ^ "Afghanistan". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 25 January 2025.
  28. ^ "Afghanistan country profile". bbc.com. 15 August 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  29. ^ "Afghanistan". cia.gov. Retrieved 6 January 2025.
  30. ^ "World Population Prospects 2024 Summary of Results" (PDF). un.org. p61. Retrieved 6 January 2025.
  31. ^ "World Population Prospects 2024 Data Sources" (PDF). un.org. p11. Retrieved 6 January 2025.
  32. ^ "Afghanistan". nsia.gov.af. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  33. ^ Pillalamarri, Akhilesh. "Why Is Afghanistan the 'Graveyard of Empires'?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  34. ^ Griffin, Luke (14 January 2002). "The Pre-Islamic Period". Afghanistan Country Study. Illinois Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on 3 November 2001. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
  35. ^ Cush, Denise; Robinson, Catherine; York, Michael (2012). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. p. 200. ISBN 9781135189792.
  36. ^ "The remarkable rugs of war, Drill Hall Gallery". The Australian. 30 July 2021. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  37. ^ "Professing Faith: Religious traditions in Afghanistan are diverse". 16 September 2021. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
  38. ^ "Afghanistan: the land that forgot time". The Guardian. 26 October 2001. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
  39. ^ "DŌST MOḤAMMAD KHAN". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 1995. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
  40. ^ Watkins, Andrew H. (November 2021). Cruickshank, Paul; Hummel, Kristina (eds.). "An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months" (PDF). CTC Sentinel. 14 (9). West Point, New York: Combating Terrorism Center: 1–14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
  41. ^ "Morocco seizes over 840 kg of cannabis – Xinhua | English.news.cn". Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
  42. ^ "Afghanistan's Saffron on Media | AfGOV". mail.gov.af. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
  43. ^ "Taliban Takeover Puts Afghanistan's Cashmere, Silk Industries at Risk". The Business of Fashion. 25 August 2021. Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
  44. ^ Howard Adelman (15 April 2016). Protracted Displacement in Asia: No Place to Call Home. Taylor & Francis. p. 167. ISBN 978-1-317-07407-6.
  45. ^ "The foreign troops left in Afghanistan". BBC News. 15 October 2015. Archived from the original on 19 August 2021. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
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General and cited sources

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  • Mehta, Jaswant Lal (January 2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813. Sterling Publishers. ISBN 9781932705546.

Further reading

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Main article: Bibliography of Afghanistan
See also: Bibliography of the history of Central Asia
[edit]
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