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Language deprivation in children with hearing loss

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Language deprivation in deaf and hard-of-hearing children is a delay in language development that occurs when sufficient exposure to any language, spoken or signed, is not provided in the first few years of a deaf or hard of hearing child's life, often called the critical period. Early intervention, parental involvement, and other resources all work to prevent language deprivation. Children who experience limited access to language—spoken or signed—may not develop the necessary skills to successfully assimilate into the academic learning environment.[1] There are various educational approaches for teaching deaf and hard of hearing individuals. Decisions about language instruction is dependent upon a number of factors including extent of hearing loss, availability of programs, and family dynamics. There are many useful resources and methods to prevent language deprivation in deaf children.

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Information about options regarding language instruction is generally obtained first from medical professionals such as audiologists, physicians, or speech language pathologists.

Regardless of the option chosen, sign language may help the child experience typical language development.

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Similarly, this happens to a lot of deaf children because they did not receive any form of language from their parents. Therefore, hearing parents are encouraged to learn sign language for their deaf children to prevent language deprivation. It is very common for parents to get misinformation from professional workers about how to give deaf children language inputs. Early intervention, parental involvement, and resources all work to prevent language deprivation. Children who experience limited access to language—spoken or signed—may not develop the necessary skills to successfully assimilate into the academic learning milieu.[1] There are various educational approaches for teaching deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals. It is advantageous for deaf or hearing-impaired children to learn sign language to achieve typical language development, even in cases where they are undergoing treatment designed to restore hearing. There are so many useful resources and methods to prevent language deprivation in deaf children.

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Language deprivation in deaf and hard-of-hearing children often occurs when sufficient exposure to any language, spoken or signed, is not provided in the first few years of life.[2] Language development may be severely delayed from the lack of language exposure during this period. This was observed in well-known clinical case studies such as Genie,[3][4]Kaspar Hauser, Anna,[5][6] and Isabelle,[7][8] as well as cases analyzing feral children such as Victor. All of these children had typical hearing yet did not develop language typically due to language deprivation.

Similarly, this happens to children with a hearing loss who do not receive sufficient language instruction and modeling. Language may be provided either by audition or a signed language. Information about options regarding language instruction is generally obtained first from medical professionals such as audiologists, physicians, or speech language pathologists. These professionals typically provide information that aligns with the medical model of a disability. Early intervention, parental involvement, and resources all work to prevent language deprivation. Children who experience limited access to language—spoken or signed—may not develop the necessary skills to successfully assimilate into the academic learning milieu.[9] Decisions about language instruction are dependent upon a number of factors including extent of hearing loss, availability of programs, and family dynamics. There are various educational approaches for teaching deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals. It is advantageous for deaf or children with a hearing loss to learn sign language to achieve typical language development, even in cases where they are undergoing treatment designed to restore hearing.[10][11] There are many useful resources and methods to prevent language deprivation in deaf children.

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LEAD-K has faced opposition from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) and American Cochlear Implant Alliance (ACIA). Both groups released statements regarding their concerns about the parental choice of modality for their child.[12][13] They argued that such legislation could negatively impact the services the child receives under IDEA. ACIA also argued that there was a lack of evidence suggesting that ASL benefits all children with a hearing loss.[14] ASHA expressed its concern that parents might not receive information regarding all possible options and that the policy elevated one modality over all others.[15] LEAD-K responded to these concerns by reiterating their commitment to deaf and hard of hearing children achieving age appropriate language milestones regardless of the language chosen by the parents and that they were not advocating for one modality over another.[16][17]

Code Switching

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By prioritizing the child's visual and auditory language equally from birth, children are given every opportunity and tool to develop language. As children grow and become adults, they may naturally prefer one modality over the other, but will have developed useful skills in both. Code-switching allows bilingual individuals to experience all the benefits of each language they know. For deaf and hard of hearing children especially, a strong language foundation in a signed language paired with a spoken language (or written) sets the stage for literacy later on. In a study conducted with Deaf and hearing individuals, psychologists found that deaf children born to deaf parents were the most proficient at code-switching. In turn, deaf children born to hearing parents struggled more with the ability to code-switch and communicate in various conditions. Parents' hearing status and age that the child is exposed to language affect deaf children's ability to code-switch.[18] Deaf children may lack proficiency or fluency in either language during early language-learning development, they still engage in code switching activities, in which they go back and forth between signing and English to communicate.[19] Code switching from oral speech is difficult for Deaf children. Lexical borrowing and code switching do occur between sign and oral languages.[20] Lexicon is similar to borrowing and oral speech to code switching.[clarification needed]

Typical language development for deaf and hard of hearing children

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Similar linguistic milestones are found in both signed and spoken languages.[21][22] Reduced access to language may result in behavior problems as the child does not have a way to express his wants or needs.[23] When a developing child experiences reduced access to language it may result in behavior problems as the child does not have a way to express his wants or needs.[24][25] Language deprivation may also affect their neurological development.[23][26] The timing and quality of language exposure are more important than hearing status for developing age-appropriate skills.[26]



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Although language deprivation is likely to occur when hearing loss restricts access to spoken language, deaf and hard of hearing children are capable of acquiring typical language. This is because language deprivation is caused by restricted language access, not by deafness itself. For deaf and hard of hearing children with no vision impairments, visual language is fully accessible to them and can protect them from experiencing language deprivation. An example of this is when Deaf parents have a deaf baby. A 2017 study worked to identify the role of language deprivation versus deafness itself with regards to child behavior.[23] When comparing two groups of deaf children, the researchers found that the group who had been exposed to language from birth did not display the behavioral issues that characterized the language deprivation group. Since the children in both groups were deaf, the researchers concluded that it was not deafness, but language exposure that protected the native signers from developing the behavioral issues characteristic of the group who had experienced language deprivation.[23] Studies such as this reveal that the timing and quality of language exposure are more important than hearing status for developing age-appropriate skills.[26]

Language acquisition in deaf children

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Most children naturally learn their native language at a young age.[27] Although spoken language is ubiquitous for children who hear normally, congenitally deaf children do not have access to it from birth. Less than 10% of the children with hearing loss are born into deaf families who use sign language as their main communication method.[28] Signed languages are natural languages with linguistic features similar to spoken languages, and the developmental milestones are similar to those of spoken languages.[29][30][31][32][33][34] Deaf and hard of hearing children with deaf parents who sign with them thus experience language from birth, like typically developing children with normal hearing.[35] To succeed, children must acquire at least one language (spoken or signed).[24] Some researchers and practitioners encourage families to focus exclusively on spoken language.[36] There is also evidence that suggests that natural sign languages are beneficial to deaf and hard of hearing children.[37]

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At a young age, most children naturally learn their native language.[27] "Although spoken language is ubiquitous for children who hear normally, congenitally deaf children do not have access to it from birth. Approximately 10% of the deaf children are born into deaf families who use sign language as their main communication method. Sign languages are natural languages with linguistic features similar to spoken languages, and the developmental milestones for sign language are similar to those of spoken languages.[29][30][31][32][33][34] Deaf children with deaf parents who sign with them thus experience language from birth, like typically developing children with normal hearing."[35] To succeed, Deaf and Hard of Hearing (DHH) children must acquire at least one language (spoken or signed). This purpose is reinforced by providing access to a native sign language. Many researchers and practitioners encourage families to focus exclusively on spoken language, despite evidence that natural sign languages are beneficial to DHH children.[37]

References

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  1. ^ a b Marschark, Marc; Hauser, Peter C (2008-07-10). Deaf Cognition. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195368673.003.0012. ISBN 978-0-19-536867-3.
  2. ^ Goldberg, Karen A. (2020-10-01). "48.2 Language Deprivation in Deaf/Hard-Of-Hearing Children". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 59 (10): S74. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2020.07.308. ISSN 0890-8567. S2CID 240695216.
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  5. ^ "Extreme Social Isolation of a Child". American Journal of Sociology. 45 (4): 554–565. January 1940. doi:10.1086/218374. S2CID 71859389.
  6. ^ Skotara, Nils; Salden, Uta; Kügow, Monique; Hänel-Faulhaber, Barbara; Röder, Brigitte (December 2012). "The influence of language deprivation in early childhood on L2 processing: An ERP comparison of deaf native signers and deaf signers with a delayed language acquisition". BMC Neuroscience. 13 (1): 44. doi:10.1186/1471-2202-13-44. PMC 3404011. PMID 22554360.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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  10. ^ Johnson, Mckenna (April–June 2021). "The Developmental Benefits of Allowing Deaf Children With Cochlear Implants Early Access to Sign Language". Infants & Young Children. 34 (2): 141–155. doi:10.1097/IYC.0000000000000185. ISSN 0896-3746. S2CID 233016770.
  11. ^ Hall, Matthew L.; Hall, Wyatte C.; Caselli, Naomi K. (March 13, 2019). "Deaf children need language, not (just) speech". First Language. 39 (4): 367–395. doi:10.1177/0142723719834102. ISSN 0142-7237. S2CID 140083091.
  12. ^ CDC (2018-04-11). "What is "Early Intervention" and is my child eligible?". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
  13. ^ "National Association of the Deaf - NAD". www.nad.org. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
  14. ^ "Position Paper: Supporting Parent Choice for Children who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing".
  15. ^ "Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids (LEAD-K)". American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Retrieved 2022-11-11.
  16. ^ "OPEN LETTER to American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)". Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids. 2019-02-28. Retrieved 2022-11-30.
  17. ^ "OPEN LETTER TO American Cochlear Implant Alliance (ACIA)". Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids. 2019-02-21. Retrieved 2022-11-30.
  18. ^ Hoffmeister, Robert; Moores, Donald F. (1987). "Code Switching in Deaf Adults". American Annals of the Deaf. 132 (1): 31–34. doi:10.1353/aad.2012.0770. ISSN 1543-0375. PMID 3630869. S2CID 27972463.
  19. ^ Andrews, Jean F.; Rusher, Melissa (2010). "Codeswitching Techniques: Evidence-Based Instructional Practices for the ASL/English Bilingual Classroom". American Annals of the Deaf. 155 (4): 407–424. doi:10.1353/aad.2010.0036. ISSN 1543-0375. PMID 21305977. S2CID 23734679.
  20. ^ Berent, Gerald P. (December 1993). "Language contact in the American deaf community. Ceil Lucas and Clayton Valli. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1992. Pp. xviii + 161. $32.50". Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 15 (4): 531–532. doi:10.1017/s0272263100012493. ISSN 0272-2631. S2CID 146406644.
  21. ^ "ASL Stages of Development (CSD)". NYSD. Retrieved 2022-11-13.
  22. ^ "Age-Appropriate Speech and Language Milestones - Stanford Medicine Children's Health". www.stanfordchildrens.org. Retrieved 2022-11-13.
  23. ^ a b c d Hall, Matthew L.; Eigsti, Inge-Marie; Bortfeld, Heather; Lillo-Martin, Diane (January 2017). "Auditory Deprivation Does Not Impair Executive Function, But Language Deprivation Might: Evidence From a Parent-Report Measure in Deaf Native Signing Children". Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. 22 (1): 9–21. doi:10.1093/deafed/enw054. PMC 5189172. PMID 27624307.
  24. ^ a b Humphries, Tom; Kushalnagar, Poorna; Mathur, Gaurav; Napoli, Donna Jo; Padden, Carol; Pollard, Robert; Rathmann, Christian; Smith, Scott (2014-12-01). "What Medical Education can do to Ensure Robust Language Development in Deaf Children". Medical Science Educator. 24 (4): 409–419. doi:10.1007/s40670-014-0073-7. ISSN 2156-8650.
  25. ^ Stevenson, Jim; Kreppner, Jana; Pimperton, Hannah; Worsfold, Sarah; Kennedy, Colin (2015-05). "Emotional and behavioural difficulties in children and adolescents with hearing impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 24 (5): 477–496. doi:10.1007/s00787-015-0697-1. ISSN 1018-8827. PMC 4419186. PMID 25758233. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  26. ^ a b c Language_Deprivation_in_Deaf_Children_EHDI_Poster_2019
  27. ^ a b RAMÍREZ, NAJA FERJAN; LIEBERMAN, AMY M.; MAYBERRY, RACHEL I. (2012-01-20). "The initial stages of first-language acquisition begun in adolescence: when late looks early". Journal of Child Language. 40 (2): 391–414. doi:10.1017/s0305000911000535. ISSN 0305-0009. PMC 3645343. PMID 22261245.
  28. ^ "Quick Statistics About Hearing". NIDCD. Retrieved 2022-10-29.
  29. ^ a b Stokoe, William C. (1978). Sign language structure : the first linguistic analysis of American sign language (Newly rev ed.). Silver Spring, MD: Linstok Press. ISBN 0-932130-03-8. OCLC 4606225.
  30. ^ a b Klima, Edward S. (1979). The signs of language. Ursula Bellugi. Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 0-674-80795-2. OCLC 4569939.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  31. ^ a b Reilly, Judy Snitzer; Mcintire, Marina; Bellugi, Ursula (1990-12). "The acquisition of conditionals in American Sign Language: Grammaticized facial expressions". Applied Psycholinguistics. 11 (4): 369–392. doi:10.1017/S0142716400009632. ISSN 1469-1817. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  32. ^ a b Anderson, D. (2002-06-01). "The MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory: Normative Data for American Sign Language". Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. 7 (2): 83–106. doi:10.1093/deafed/7.2.83.
  33. ^ a b Pichler, Deborah Chen (2002-01-01). "Word order variation and acquisition in American Sign Language". Sign Language & Linguistics. 5 (1): 89–97. doi:10.1075/sll.5.1.10pic. ISSN 1387-9316.
  34. ^ a b Mayberry, R.I.; Squires, B. (2006), "Sign Language: Acquisition", Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, Elsevier, pp. 291–296, doi:10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00854-3, ISBN 978-0-08-044854-1, retrieved 2022-11-16
  35. ^ a b Mayberry, R.I.; Squires, B. (2006), "Sign Language: Acquisition", Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, Elsevier, pp. 291–296, doi:10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00854-3, ISBN 9780080448541, retrieved 2022-05-10
  36. ^ Lim, S. Y. C.; Simser, J. (2005-05). "Auditory-verbal therapy for children with hearing impairment". Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore. 34 (4): 307–312. ISSN 0304-4602. PMID 15937571. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. ^ a b Hall, Matthew L.; Hall, Wyatte C.; Caselli, Naomi K. (2019-03-13). "Deaf children need language, not (just) speech". First Language. 39 (4): 367–395. doi:10.1177/0142723719834102. ISSN 0142-7237. S2CID 140083091.
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