User:Peach345/Mexican–American War

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It followed the 1845 American annexation of Texas, which Mexico still considered its territory. Mexico refused to recognize the Treaties of Velasco, because they were signed by President Antonio López de Santa Anna while he was captured by the Texian Army during the 1836 Texas Revolution.

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It followed the 1845 American annexation of Texas, which Mexico still considered its territory because Mexico refused to recognize the Treaties of Velasco. This treaty was signed by President Antonio López de Santa Anna while he was captured by the Texian Army during the 1836 Texas Revolution.

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Outnumbered militarily and with many large cities of the Mexican heartland including its capital occupied, Mexico could not defend itself in conventional warfare. Mexico faced many continuing internal divisions between factions so that bringing the war to a formal end was not straightforward. There were also complications in the U.S. for negotiating the peace.

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Outnumbered militarily and with many large cities of the Mexican heartland including its capital occupied, Mexico could not defend itself in conventional warfare. Mexico faced many continuing internal divisions between factions so that bringing the war to a formal end was not straightforward. Although, there were complications with negotiating peace on both ends, peace came in Alta California in January 1847 with the Treaty of Cahuenga, with the Californios (Mexican residents of Alta California) capitulating to the American forces. A more comprehensive peace treaty was needed to end the conflict.

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The Mexican Army was a weak and divided force. Only 7 of the 19 states that formed the Mexican federation sent soldiers, armament, and money for the war effort. Santa Anna said, "The leaders of the army did their best to train the rough men who volunteered, but they could do little to inspire them with patriotism for the glorious country they were honored to serve." According to the leading Mexican conservative politician, Lucas Alamán, the "money spent on arming Mexican troops merely enabled them to fight each other and 'give the illusion' that the country possessed an army for its defense." However, an officer criticized Santa Anna's training of troops, "The cavalry was drilled only in regiments.

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The Mexican army was a weakened and divided force which had only 7 of the 19 states that formed the Mexican federation sent soldiers, armament, and money for the war effort. Many leaders expressed their concern for the country including Santa Anna who stated that "[t]he leaders of the army did their best to train the rough men who volunteered, but they could do little to inspire them with patriotism for the glorious country they were honored to serve." According to the leading Mexican conservative politician, Lucas Alamán, the "money spent on arming Mexican troops merely enabled them to fight each other and 'give the illusion' that the country possessed an army for its defense." However, an officer criticized Santa Anna's training of troops, "The cavalry was drilled only in regiments.

Considering adding "Role of Slavery" placed under

Add link to section stating “As settlers poured in from the U.S., the Mexican government discouraged further settlement with its 1829 abolition of slavery.” if possible.

The Role of Slavery

Slavery in Mexico

Mexico dismantled slavery within the country shortly after gaining its independence from Spain in 1821. In only 16 years, movements by important Mexican figures such as, Miguel Hidalgo, led to this realization. Slavery was outlawed in Mexico in 1837 with the use of wage laborers and their cultural social mobility. This included what was then the Mexican State of Coahuila y Tejas and is now modern day Texas. As an influx of American immigrants, or Anglo-texans, settled in Coahuila y Tejas, Mexico abolished the autonomy of states. From this the the Republic of Texas declared independence from Mexico due to the increased number of Anglo-Texans because those migrants saw the abolition of slavery as a reason to leave Mexico and fight for its independence to maintain their right to slavery.

Slavery in the United States

Slavery was legal in the United States of America long after the Mexican War ended. One of the main reasons the United States annexed the Republic of Texas as a slave state was because of the agenda to push West. This annexation led to a concern of an unequal distribution among congress of slave and free states in the United States which caused further tension leading up to the Civil War. The Mexican War also played a large role in influencing and training many confederate military leaders.

Slavery in Texas

What is now Texas played a crucial role in the escalation of the Mexican War. Tensions regarding the abolition of slavery in Mexico rose with time creating interpretations such as one that “suggests that the Mexican government abolished slavery as a result of a plan to deprive Anglo-Texans of their property and ultimately to dislodge them from Texas.”  Slavery was crucial to Texas’ society and “[i]n abolishing slavery Mexico broke a contractual agreement which had allowed the early Anglo settlers to bring slaves into the province." From both sides it was clear that the Mexican War to Texans was to protect slavery and expand the United States’ territory.

Considering moving these sections to "Role of Women" or adding a link to it.

Since Mexico fought the war on its home territory, a traditional support system for troops were women, known as soldaderas. They did not participate in conventional fighting on battlefields, but some soldaderas joined the battle alongside the men. These women were involved in fighting during the defense of Mexico City and Monterey. Some women such as Dos Amandes and María Josefa Zozaya would be remembered as heroes.

Role of Women (as it appears in the "Women in the Mexican-American War" article)

Contributions from Mexican women

On the battlefield

Since Mexico fought the war on its home territory, a traditional support system for troops were women, known as soldaderas. They did not participate in conventional fighting on battlefields, but some soldaderas joined the battle alongside the men. These women were involved in fighting during the defense of Mexico City and Monterrey. Some women such as Doña Jesús Dosamantes and María Josefa Zozaya would be remembered as heroes. Dosamantes was known to have "unsexed" and disguised herself as a captain to fight directly in the face of danger alongside her fellow troops. On the other hand, Zozaya was known to have multiple versions of her story. Some of which included jumping onto rooftops in the city to provide food and munitions to her troops and dying on the battlefield. While Dos Amandes and María Josefa Zozaya were seen as die-hard patriots, some Mexican women during the war were described as "angels" as they came to the rescue of all wounded men on both sides. The Mexican women working alongside the male troops faced the same obstacles on the battlefront, however, they were not spared of their duties after returning from battle, for they still had to provide food and clothing. Known as the "shadow army" behind the Mexican force, Mexican women were able to unite by the hundreds behind their fellow soldiers to supply medical needs and boost their morale. On many occasions, soldaderas came to the aid of the opposing army, providing a share of their rations and the clothes on their backs. Constantly on the move between shelters and the battlefield, a soldadera's work was never done. Unlike the Americans who had a negative judgment of soldaderas, their visibility to the Mexican army was not ignored, whether they were coming to the aid of others or leading them into battle.

On the home front

More often than not, soldaderas had to carry the misconception of solely being seen as servants, especially by American soldiers. Americans had to come to terms with the fact that Mexican women were just as, if not more, patriotic and fearless than their male counterparts. Aside from providing their services during battle, Mexican women were able to do more than what was expected of  them domestically. Though they were not ideal circumstances, the war gave Mexican women the opportunity to find new independence within the public sphere. Mexican women were seen pushing the boundaries that were placed onto them by men. To display their pride in defense of their country, Mexican women created their own forms of propaganda. Amongst the faces of the enemy, after the Battle of Monterrey, many Mexican women were seen dressed in “mourning garb and draped their houses in black for three days, as church bells rang funeral tolls.” Daniel Harvey Hill, American general, recalled seeing Mexican women paint their men performing domestic duties, such as sewing, while American officials stood by in full dress. Despite their losses, Mexican women still risked their lives in public in order to display their patriotism, aside from risking their lives in battle.

Contributions from American women

On the battlefield

It was not common for American women to join the American forces in combat. Much like Mexican women, they were mostly recognized for their work as laundresses and cooks. However, there were notable American women who stepped out of their private sphere. For instance, Sarah Bowman was unlike most American women in Mexico. Not just for her appearance, but also her role on the battlefield. Standing at six foot two and weighing two hundred pounds, American troops stood in awe of Bowman's muscles and her ability to lift bodies and equipment with ease. Aside from providing food and clothing to the soldiers, many depended on Bowman to transport wounded soldiers to healthcare workers within the forts. When faced with the dangers of bullets flying about and soldiers fighting, Bowman was still seen preparing food, delivering it, and even attacking the enemy.

On the home front

In Mexico

Prior to the war, New England industries had already expanded on Mexican territory. Therefore, American couples had already made the move to reside in Mexico. When American women were abandoned by their husbands to fight in the war, they were left to uphold the factories. Thus, factory women held supervising positions as well as labor jobs, especially in the textile industry. Among these women who became factory overseers was Ann Chase, another hero to the American forces. As an Irish immigrant, Chase was sympathetic towards the impoverished Mexican cities she resided in, especially Tampico, and even conducted her own research. As American citizens were told to evacuate Tampico, Chase was left to run her husband's business alone as she was exempted due to her British citizenship.. Towards the beginning of the war, she was bombarded with increased pressures from Mexican officials to shut down her business and move away. With resentment towards the war, Chase began to send information to U.S. Navy troops upon the whereabouts of Mexican troops: "Her balcony offered an eagle's perch from which to monitor the arrival and departure of troops, their size, point of origin, discipline, and morale." Even though Chase was impressed with the efforts of impoverished Mexican and soldaderas, she was willing to become a spy for U.S. troops if it meant the protection of her home and business.

During the war, it was common for women to travel with their husbands to Mexico. While they had the same domestic duties as Mexican women, oftentimes, American women were hired to be laundresses and servants; American women were getting paid to work. White American women remained in the presence of American troops in terms of medical and domestic service. However, on rare occasions, some American women became prostitutes.

In the U.S.

While some American women joined the war effort in Mexico, many were able to contribute from across the border. Whether they were in support or opposition to the war, many women decided to maintain their traditional values. Crafting art, flags, and quilts were among the most common forms for American women to display their patriotism, passing it on to their husbands and sons who had enlisted. However, many American women also took the opportunity to manage their businesses in the absence of men as well as protesting their concerns publicly. Also wanting to make their voices heard within the public sphere, some American women took advantage of their literacy to reach headlines across multiple states.

Within the male-dominated journalism space, American women stepped up in support and opposition of the war through their writing nationwide. Among the most prominent was Anne Royall, a Virginian journalist, who did not hold back when it came to speaking up about the war. While her views varied at times, as aggressions grew more violent, she became opposed to the war . Aside from hearing about the tragedies in Mexico, Royall increasingly grew tired of America’s fight for expansion, claiming that “the republic was simply becoming too large, too unmanageable.” Royall sympathized for Mexican women as she demanded the prosecution of U.S. volunteers who raped and murdered them. Being recognized as the first women political journalist, Royall continued to advocate for women using their voice within the public sphere up until her death in 1854. Also in opposition of the war was Jane Swisshelm, a Pennsylvanian journalist who also advocated for abolitionism and women’s rights. After witnessing families being separated due to the war, she began sending angry letters in opposition of the war to the Whig Daily Commercial Journal. Readers were entertained by how Swisshelm wrote with “reckless abandon” and colorful language, claiming that the war was unfair and denouncing anyone who was in support of it. Although they were across the border, both Royall and Swisshelm not only became vessels for the voices of those in opposition of the war, but also Mexican women who were being attacked. On the other hand, Jane Cazneau, a New York editor, became a spy for the Polk administration during the war. Although Cazneau wanted the gruesome fighting to end, she believed that the U.S. would benefit commercially from expansion in Mexico. Deemed as the “Mistress of Manifest Destiny”, Cazneau denounced Mexico's resistance: “Mexico is not true to herself, and even at this hour, she is doing more for the generals of the United States than they can do for themselves. [Mexico] would be more than ready to receive an American government.” Although many thought that the war was unfair, Cazneau represented the voices of American women who were in support of the U.S. territorial expansion. Opportunists like Royall, Swisshelm, and Cazneau were seen as independent thinkers during the war and represented the American women who were silenced within the public sphere.

Role of Women (as it appears in the Mexican-American War article)

Contributions from Mexican women

Main article: Women in the Mexican–American War

On the battlefield

Since Mexico fought the war on its home territory, a traditional support system for troops were women, known as soldaderas. They did not participate in conventional fighting on battlefields, but some soldaderas joined the battle alongside the men. These women were involved in fighting during the defense of Mexico City and Monterrey. Some women such as Doña Jesús Dosamantes and María Josefa Zozaya would be remembered as heroes. Dosamantes and Zozaya are most notably known for their die-hard patriotism as they faced the enemy directly on the battlefield. On the other hand, some Mexican women were seen as "angels" as they provided aid and comfort to the injured men on both sides.

On the home front

Although soldaderas were able to prove the abilities Mexican women had outside of the private sphere, Mexican women on the home front still contributed to the war effort. After having to face the losses in their country, Mexican women were seen dressed in black and creating somber paintings.

Contributions from American Women

Main article: Women in the Mexican–American War

On the battlefield

American and Mexican women shared the similarities of providing their domestic services on the battlefield. Among the most notable American women on the battlefield was Sarah Bowman. She was often seen delivering food, carrying wounded soldiers, and in close combat.

On the home front

In Mexico

While their husbands enlisted, many American women stayed in Mexico to tend to oversee their business, making themselves factory women. However, factory woman Ann Chase was wiling enough to become a spy for U.S. forces in order to protect her home and business in the absence of her husband.

In the U.S.

Similarly to the Mexican women were contributed to the war efforts from their homes, women in the U.S. also protested publicly and made patriotic crafts that U.S. soldiers could carry. In addition, female journalists across multiple states took advantage of their literacy to speak up in support or in opposition of the war, including Anne Royall, Jane Swisshelm, and Jane Cazneau.Female American journalists played a crucial role in representing the voices of women that had been silenced within the public sphere.

Addition to sub-section: Mexican Army

By the beginning of the war, indigenous populations were depleted of their natural resources due to an influx of American settlers. As a result, indigenous populations from the Great Plains region had to rely on raiding American camps in order to survive. Although raiding was much more lucrative than hunting, indigenous population did not have much of a choice. Indigenous soldiers who volunteered to fight with the Mexican Army were often abandoned and compensated unfairly. By raiding, indigenous populations were also able to acquire horses and properly tame them to move efficiently during battles. Captive-taking methods, especially that of the Comanche tribe, were also used to the advantage of the Mexican Army as captives would end up assisting indigenous populations in the raids of American forces.