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Introduction

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), or simply autism, is a neurodevelopmental disorder "characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts" and "restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities". Sensory abnormalities are also included in the diagnostic manuals. Common associated traits such as motor coordination impairment are typical of the condition but not required for diagnosis. A formal diagnosis requires that symptoms cause significant impairment in multiple functional domains, in addition to being atypical or excessive for the person's age and sociocultural context.

Autism is a spectrum disorder, meaning it manifests in various ways, with its severity and support needs varying widely across different autistic people. For example, some autistic people are nonverbal, while others have proficient spoken language. Furthermore, the spectrum is multi-dimensional and not all dimensions have been identified as of 2024. (Full article...)

Selected general articles

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  Healed scars on the forearm from prior self-harm

  
  Self-harm refers to intentional behaviors that cause harm to oneself. This is most commonly regarded as direct injury of one's own skin tissues, usually without suicidal intention. Other terms such as cutting, self-injury, and self-mutilation have been used for any self-harming behavior regardless of suicidal intent. Common forms of self-harm include damaging the skin with a sharp object or scratching with the fingernails, hitting, or burning. The exact bounds of self-harm are imprecise, but generally exclude tissue damage that occurs as an unintended side-effect of eating disorders or substance abuse, as well as more societally acceptable body modification such as tattoos and piercings.
  
  Although self-harm is by definition non-suicidal, it may still be life-threatening. People who do self-harm are more likely to die by suicide, and self-harm is found in 40–60% of suicides. Still, only a minority of those who self-harm are suicidal. (Full article...)
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  In physiology, nociception (/ˌnəʊsɪˈsɛpʃ(ə)n/), also nocioception; from Latin nocere 'to harm/hurt') is the sensory nervous system's process of encoding noxious stimuli. It deals with a series of events and processes required for an organism to receive a painful stimulus, convert it to a molecular signal, and recognize and characterize the signal to trigger an appropriate defensive response.
  
  In nociception, intense chemical (e.g., capsaicin present in chili pepper or cayenne pepper), mechanical (e.g., cutting, crushing), or thermal (heat and cold) stimulation of sensory neurons called nociceptors produces a signal that travels along a chain of nerve fibers via the spinal cord to the brain. Nociception triggers a variety of physiological and behavioral responses to protect the organism against an aggression, and usually results in a subjective experience, or perception, of pain in sentient beings. (Full article...)
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  A cognitive bias is a systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. Individuals create their own "subjective reality" from their perception of the input. An individual's construction of reality, not the objective input, may dictate their behavior in the world. Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, and irrationality.
  
  While cognitive biases may initially appear to be negative, some are adaptive. They may lead to more effective actions in a given context. Furthermore, allowing cognitive biases enables faster decisions which can be desirable when timeliness is more valuable than accuracy, as illustrated in heuristics. Other cognitive biases are a "by-product" of human processing limitations, resulting from a lack of appropriate mental mechanisms (bounded rationality), the impact of an individual's constitution and biological state (see embodied cognition), or simply from a limited capacity for information processing. Research suggests that cognitive biases can make individuals more inclined to endorsing pseudoscientific beliefs by requiring less evidence for claims that confirm their preconceptions. This can potentially distort their perceptions and lead to inaccurate judgments. (Full article...)
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  An SPD nosology proposed by Miller LJ et al. (2007)

  
  Sensory processing disorder (SPD), formerly known as sensory integration dysfunction, is a condition in which multisensory input is not adequately processed in order to provide appropriate responses to the demands of the environment. Sensory processing disorder is present in many people with dyspraxia, autism spectrum disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Individuals with SPD may inadequately process visual, auditory, olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), tactile (touch), vestibular (balance), proprioception (body awareness), and interoception (internal body senses) sensory stimuli.
  
  Sensory integration was defined by occupational therapist Anna Jean Ayres in 1972 as "the neurological process that organizes sensation from one's own body and from the environment and makes it possible to use the body effectively within the environment". Sensory processing disorder has been characterized as the source of significant problems in organizing sensation coming from the body and the environment and is manifested by difficulties in the performance in one or more of the main areas of life: productivity, leisure and play or activities of daily living. (Full article...)
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  PLOS Biology is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of biology. Publication began on October 13, 2003. It is the first journal published by the Public Library of Science. The editor-in-chief is Nonia Pariente.
  
  In addition to research articles, the journal publishes magazine content aimed to be accessible to a broad audience. Article types in this section are essays, "unsolved mysteries", editorials, and synopses. (Full article...)
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  Babbling is a stage in child development and a state in language acquisition during which an infant appears to be experimenting with uttering articulate sounds, but does not yet produce any recognizable words. Babbling begins shortly after birth and progresses through several stages as the infant's repertoire of sounds expands and vocalizations become more speech-like. Infants typically begin to produce recognizable words when they are around 12 months of age, though babbling may continue for some time afterward.
  
  Babbling can be seen as a precursor to language development or simply as vocal experimentation. The physical structures involved in babbling are still being developed in the first year of a child's life. This continued physical development is responsible for some of the changes in abilities and variations of sound babies can produce. Abnormal developments such as certain medical conditions, developmental delays, and hearing impairments may interfere with a child's ability to babble normally. Though there is still disagreement about the uniqueness of language to humans, babbling is not unique to the human species. (Full article...)
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  Organs of the gastrointestinal tract

  
  Gastrointestinal diseases (abbrev. GI diseases or GI illnesses) refer to diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract, namely the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum; and the accessory organs of digestion, the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. (Full article...)
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  Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by executive dysfunction occasioning symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity and emotional dysregulation that are excessive and pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and developmentally-inappropriate.
  
  ADHD symptoms arise from executive dysfunction, and emotional dysregulation is often considered a core symptom. Impairments resulting from deficits in self-regulation such as time management, inhibition, and sustained attention can include poor professional performance, relationship difficulties, and numerous health risks, collectively predisposing to a diminished quality of life and a direct average reduction in life expectancy of 13 years. The disorder costs society hundreds of billions of US dollars each year, worldwide. It is associated with other neurodevelopmental and mental disorders as well as non-psychiatric disorders, which can cause additional impairment. (Full article...)
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  Lithograph of a person diagnosed with melancholia and strong suicidal tendency in 1892

  
  Depression is a mental state of low mood and aversion to activity. It affects about 3.5% of the global population, or about 280 million people worldwide, as of 2020. Depression affects a person's thoughts, behavior, feelings, and sense of well-being. The pleasure or joy that a person gets from certain experiences is reduced, and the afflicted person often experiences a loss of motivation or interest in those activities. People with depression may experience sadness, feelings of dejection or hopelessness, difficulty in thinking and concentration, or a significant change in appetite or time spent sleeping; suicidal thoughts can also be experienced.
  
  Depression can have multiple, sometimes overlapping, origins. Depression can be a symptom of some mood disorders, some of which are also commonly called depression, such as major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and dysthymia. Additionally, depression can be a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the loss of a loved one. Depression is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments. (Full article...)
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  Inborn errors of metabolism form a large class of genetic diseases involving congenital disorders of enzyme activities. The majority are due to defects of single genes that code for enzymes that facilitate conversion of various substances (substrates) into others (products). In most of the disorders, problems arise due to accumulation of substances which are toxic or interfere with normal function, or due to the effects of reduced ability to synthesize essential compounds. Inborn errors of metabolism are often referred to as congenital metabolic diseases or inherited metabolic disorders. Another term used to describe these disorders is "enzymopathies". This term was created following the study of biodynamic enzymology, a science based on the study of the enzymes and their products. Finally, inborn errors of metabolism were studied for the first time by British physician Archibald Garrod (1857–1936), in 1908. He is known for work that prefigured the "one gene–one enzyme" hypothesis, based on his studies on the nature and inheritance of alkaptonuria. His seminal text, Inborn Errors of Metabolism, was published in 1923. (Full article...)
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  Classification is the activity of assigning objects to some pre-existing classes or categories. This is distinct from the task of establishing the classes themselves (for example through cluster analysis). Examples include diagnostic tests, identifying spam emails and deciding whether to give someone a driving license.
  
  As well as 'category', synonyms or near-synonyms for 'class' include 'type', 'species', 'order', 'concept', 'taxon', 'group', 'identification' and 'division'. (Full article...)
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  Major brain structures implicated in autism

  
  Classic autism, also known as childhood autism, autistic disorder, or Kanner's syndrome, is a formerly diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorder first described by Leo Kanner in 1943. It is characterized by atypical and impaired development in social interaction and communication as well as restricted, repetitive behaviors, activities, and interests. These symptoms first appear in early childhood and persist throughout life.
  
  
  It was last recognized as a diagnosis in the DSM-IV and ICD-10, and has been superseded by autism spectrum disorder in the DSM-5 (2013) and ICD-11 (2022). Globally, classic autism was estimated to affect 24.8 million people as of 2015. (Full article...)
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  Children with intellectual disabilities and other developmental conditions competing in the Special Olympics World Games

  
  Intellectual disability (ID), also known as general learning disability (in the United Kingdom), and formerly mental retardation (in the United States), is a generalized neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by significant impairment in intellectual and adaptive functioning that is first apparent during childhood. Children with intellectual disabilities typically have an intelligence quotient (IQ) below 70 and deficits in at least two adaptive behaviors that affect everyday living. According to the DSM-5, intellectual functions include reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience. Deficits in these functions must be confirmed by clinical evaluation and individualized standard IQ testing. On the other hand, adaptive behaviors include the social, developmental, and practical skills people learn to perform tasks in their everyday lives. Deficits in adaptive functioning often compromise an individual's independence and ability to meet their social responsibility.
  
  Intellectual disability is subdivided into syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits associated with other medical and behavioral signs and symptoms are present, and non-syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits appear without other abnormalities. Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome are examples of syndromic intellectual disabilities. (Full article...)
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  The Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering research on all aspects of autism spectrum disorders and related developmental disabilities. The journal was established in 1971 as the Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, obtaining its current title in 1979. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Lynn Kern Koegel (Stanford University). (Full article...)
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  The Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering research on all aspects of autism spectrum disorders and related developmental disabilities. The journal was established in 1971 as the Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, obtaining its current title in 1979. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Lynn Kern Koegel (Stanford University). (Full article...)
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  Brain: A Journal of Neurology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of neurology, founded in 1878 by John Charles Bucknill, David Ferrier, James Crichton-Browne and John Hughlings Jackson. It is published by Oxford University Press.
  
  The journal was edited by John Newsom-Davis from 1997 to 2004, Alastair Compston (Cambridge University) until 2013, and Dimitri Kullmann (UCL) until 2021. The current editor-in-chief is Masud Husain (University of Oxford). (Full article...)
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  The autonomic nervous system

  
  Dysautonomia, autonomic failure, or autonomic dysfunction is a condition in which the autonomic nervous system (ANS) does not work properly. This may affect the functioning of the heart, bladder, intestines, sweat glands, pupils, and blood vessels. Dysautonomia has many causes, not all of which may be classified as neuropathic. A number of conditions can feature dysautonomia, such as Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, dementia with Lewy bodies, Ehlers–Danlos syndromes, autoimmune autonomic ganglionopathy and autonomic neuropathy, HIV/AIDS, mitochondrial cytopathy, pure autonomic failure, autism, and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome.
  
  Diagnosis is made by functional testing of the ANS, focusing on the affected organ system. Investigations may be performed to identify underlying disease processes that may have led to the development of symptoms or autonomic neuropathy. Symptomatic treatment is available for many symptoms associated with dysautonomia, and some disease processes can be directly treated. Depending on the severity of the dysfunction, dysautonomia can range from being nearly symptomless and transient to disabling and/or life-threatening. (Full article...)
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  Echolalia is the unsolicited repetition of vocalizations made by another person; when repeated by the same person, it is called palilalia. In its profound form it is automatic and effortless. It is one of the echophenomena, closely related to echopraxia, the automatic repetition of movements made by another person; both are "subsets of imitative behavior" whereby sounds or actions are imitated "without explicit awareness". Echolalia may be an immediate reaction to a stimulus or may be delayed.
  
  Echolalia occurs in many cases of autism spectrum disorder and Tourette syndrome. It may also occur in several other neurological conditions such as some forms of dementia or stroke-related aphasia. (Full article...)
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  Cloth embroidered by a person diagnosed with schizophrenia

  
  Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized variously by hallucinations (typically, hearing voices), delusions, disorganized thinking and behavior, and flat or inappropriate affect. Symptoms develop gradually and typically begin during young adulthood and are never resolved. There is no objective diagnostic test; diagnosis is based on observed behavior, a psychiatric history that includes the person's reported experiences, and reports of others familiar with the person. For a diagnosis of schizophrenia, the described symptoms need to have been present for at least six months (according to the DSM-5) or one month (according to the ICD-11). Many people with schizophrenia have other mental disorders, especially mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders, as well as obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD).
  
  
  About 0.3% to 0.7% of people are diagnosed with schizophrenia during their lifetime. In 2017, there were an estimated 1.1 million new cases and in 2022 a total of 24 million cases globally. Males are more often affected and on average have an earlier onset than females. The causes of schizophrenia may include genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants. Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city, childhood adversity, cannabis use during adolescence, infections, the age of a person's mother or father, and poor nutrition during pregnancy. (Full article...)
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  Autistic art depicting a special interest in cats

  
  Special interests are highly focused interests common in autistic people.
  Special interests are more intense than typical interests, such as hobbies, and may take up much of a person's free time. A person with a special interest will often hyperfocus on their special interest for hours, want to learn as much as possible on the topic, collect related items, and incorporate their special interest into play and art.
  Some interests are more likely to be seen as special interests if they are particularly unusual, specific, or niche. Autism rights advocates and psychologists say this binary of acceptable "passions" and pathologised "obsessions" is unfair. Terms like circumscribed interests, obsessions, or restricted interests have historically been used to describe special interests, but these terms are discouraged by autism rights advocates. (Full article...)
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  A stereotypy (/ˈstɛri.əˌtaɪpi, ˈstɪər-, -i.oʊ-/, STERR-ee-ə-ty-pee, STEER-, -⁠ee-oh-) is a repetitive or ritualistic movement, posture, or utterance. Stereotypies may be simple movements such as body rocking, or complex, such as self-caressing, crossing and uncrossing of legs, and marching in place. They are found especially in people with autism spectrum disorders and visually impaired children, and are also found in intellectual disabilities, tardive dyskinesia and stereotypic movement disorder; however, they may also be encountered in neurotypical individuals as well. Studies have shown stereotypies to be associated with some types of schizophrenia. Frontotemporal dementia is also a common neurological cause of repetitive behaviors and stereotypies. A number of causes have been hypothesized for stereotypy, and several treatment options are available.
  
  Stereotypy is sometimes called stimming in autism, under the hypothesis that it self-stimulates one or more senses. (Full article...)
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  Comprehensive Psychiatry is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering psychopathology. It was established in 1960 and is published by Elsevier. The editor-in-chief is Naomi Fineberg (University of Hertfordshire). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2017 impact factor of 2.128. (Full article...)
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  Depiction of insomnia from the 14th century medical manuscript Tacuinum Sanitatis

  
  Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness, is a sleep disorder where people have trouble sleeping. They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep for as long as desired. Insomnia is typically followed by daytime sleepiness, low energy, irritability, and a depressed mood. It may result in an increased risk of accidents of all kinds as well as problems focusing and learning. Insomnia can be short term, lasting for days or weeks, or long term, lasting more than a month. The concept of the word insomnia has two distinct possibilities: insomnia disorder (ID) or insomnia symptoms, and many abstracts of randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews often underreport on which of these two possibilities the word refers to.
  
  
  Insomnia can occur independently or as a result of another problem. Conditions that can result in insomnia include psychological stress, chronic pain, heart failure, hyperthyroidism, heartburn, restless leg syndrome, menopause, certain medications, and drugs such as caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol. Insomnia is also common in people with ADHD, and children with autism. Other risk factors include working night shifts and sleep apnea. Diagnosis is based on sleep habits and an examination to look for underlying causes. A sleep study may be done to look for underlying sleep disorders. Screening may be done with questions like "Do you experience difficulty sleeping?" or "Do you have difficulty falling or staying asleep?" (Full article...)
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  People at a Learning Disabilities Month event in Times Square in 2012

  
  Learning disability, learning disorder, or learning difficulty (British English) is a condition in the brain that causes difficulties comprehending or processing information and can be caused by several different factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described as having a "learning difference", thus avoiding any misconception of being disabled with a possible lack of an ability to learn and possible negative stereotyping. In the United Kingdom, the term "learning disability" generally refers to an intellectual disability, while conditions such as dyslexia and dyspraxia are usually referred to as "learning difficulties".
  
  While learning disability and learning disorder are often used interchangeably, they differ in many ways. Disorder refers to significant learning problems in an academic area. These problems, however, are not enough to warrant an official diagnosis. Learning disability, on the other hand, is an official clinical diagnosis, whereby the individual meets certain criteria, as determined by a professional (such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, speech-language pathologist, or paediatrician). The difference is in the degree, frequency, and intensity of reported symptoms and problems, and thus the two should not be confused. When the term "learning disorder" is used, it describes a group of disorders characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills. Types of learning disorders include reading (dyslexia), arithmetic (dyscalculia) and writing (dysgraphia). (Full article...)

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Selected images

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  Reports of autism cases per 1,000 children rose considerably in the US from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much growth came from changes in rates of autism. (from Autism)
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  A young autistic boy who has arranged his toys in a row (from Autism)
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  In 1996, American academic Temple Grandin published Emergence: Labeled Autistic, describing her life experiences as an autistic person. (from Autism)
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  In 2021, screenwriter and actor Wentworth Miller revealed his autism diagnosis in a now-deleted Instagram post, stating it was "a shock" but "not a surprise". (from Autism)
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  Autism awareness ribbon, used by Autism Speaks from 2005 (from Autism)
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  An autistic three-year-old points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development. (from Autism)
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  A 2024 Danish cohort study found increased risks for a multitude of comorbid physical diseases, especially in infancy. (from Autism)
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  Hundreds of different genes are implicated in susceptibility to developing autism, most of which alter the brain structure in a similar way. (from Autism)
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  An autistic boy arranging brads on a cork coaster (from Autism)
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  In 2021, Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg likened her autism to a "superpower", crediting her success to her special interests. (from Autism)
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  Euler diagram showing overlapping clinical phenotypes in genes associated with monogenic forms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), dystonia, epilepsy and schizophrenia:

    Genes associated with epilepsy

    Genes associated with schizophrenia

    Genes associated with autism spectrum disorder

    Genes associated with dystonia

  (from Autism)

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