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Task Force 60 (TF-60)
Commander Task Force 60 insignia
Active1950 – present
Country United States of America
BranchUnited States Navy Seal United States Navy
TypeTask Force
RoleNaval air/surface/strike/anti-aircraft warfare
Part ofUnited States Sixth Fleet
Nickname(s)Battle Force Zulu
EngagementsOperation Blue Bat
Operation Prairie Fire
Operation El Dorado Canyon
Operation Deliberate Force
Operation Noble Anvil
Operation Iraqi Freedom
Commanders
Notable
commanders		Howard A. Yeagar
Lawrence R. Geis
James L. Holloway III
Frederick C. Turner
Forrest S. Petersen
James E. Service
David E. Jeremiah
Henry H. Mauz, Jr.
William J. Fallon
Jay L. Johnson
John D. Stufflebeem

Task Force 60 (TF-60) is the task force designation for the Battle Force of the United States Sixth Fleet.[Note 1]

During the Cold War and its immediate aftermath, Task Force 60 was the Sixth Fleet's aircraft carrier task force, and it typically consisted of two carrier battle groups. Unlike its counterpart in the U.S. Seventh Fleet, Task Force 77, TF-60 never participated in a major conflict like the Korean War or Vietnam War. The only Cold War-era combat operations involving Task Force 60 were the 4 December 1983 air strike against anti-aircraft missile batteries near Beruit, Lebanon, and 1986's Operation Prairie Fire and Operation El Dorado Canyon.[1] Following the Cold War, Task Force 60 saw action in 1995's Operation Deliberate Force, 1999's Operation Noble Anvil, and 2003's Operation Iraqi Freedom.[2]

In addition to being an instrument of American foreign policy throughout the Mediterranean basin and the Middle East, Task Force 60 was the sole nuclear strike force for the U.S. Sixth Fleet until U.S. ballistic missile submarines began deploying to the Mediterranean Sea in 1963.[3][4][5] TF-60 continued to be a component of American nuclear strategy throughout the Cold War until the 1991 presidential order that removed all nuclear weapons from U.S. naval warships.[6]

Also during the Cold War and its immediate aftermath, Task Force 60 was also the mainstay for Task Force 502, NATO's carrier task force for its southern theater of operations.[7] As such, TF-60 participated in such pioneering NATO exercises as Longstep and Deep Water, as well as such annual exercises as Display Determination, Dawn Patrol, and Distant Hammer, during the Cold War.[8]

With the ongoing deployment of carrier strike groups to the U.S. Fifth Fleet in support of the Global War on Terror, Task Force 60 was typically commanded by the commodore of Destroyer Squadron 60. Task Force 60 was also designated as the Naval Task Force Europe and Africa in support of the Africa Partnership Station program.[9]

Background

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During World War Two, unlike the Pacific War which was the domain of the fast carrier task force, U.S. carrier operations involved escort carriers providing close air support to amphibious landings in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations.[10] The only instance of a fast aircraft carrier operating in the Mediterrranean Sea during World War Two was when the USS Wasp delivered replacement Spitfire fighters to the British garrison on Malta in 1942.[11][12] Following the war, in response to growing crises in Turkey and Greece, the United States Navy planned to deploy the U.S. Eighth Fleet, led by the carriers Midway, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Princeton, in early 1946. When the U.S. Department of State objected, considering the deployment as being too provocative, the U.S. battleship Missouri was deployed to Mediterranean.[13][14][15]

U.S. carrier Mediterranean deployments, 1946–1950

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USS Franklin D. Roosevelt at anchor at Piraeus, Greece, in September 1946.

With the escalating crises in Turkey and Greece, Task Group 125.4 led by the carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt departed Norfolk Naval Base, Virginia, for the eastern Mediterrranean on 8 August 1946 under the command of Rear Admiral John H. Cassady.[Note 2][16][17] The key event of this deployment was a highly publicized port visit to Piraeus, Greece, on 5 September 1946.[18][19] According to the late American historian James Chace noted, this deployment by Task Group 125.4 "symbolized" the true beginning of the Cold War by demonstrating U.S. support of the pro-Western governments of Greece and Turkey in the face of external Soviet pressure and internal Communist insurrections.[20]

When the carrier Randolph entered the Mediterranean Sea on 1 November 1946, the U.S. Navy began the postwar deployment of fast carrier task forces to the region (see chart below).[21] Reflecting this development, U.S. Naval Forces Mediterranean was established on 1 October 1946 and was subsequently redesignated the U.S. Sixth Fleet on 12 February 1950.[22] Following the start of Korean War, on 28 June 1950, U.S. President Harry S. Truman authorized a second carrier task group be added to the U.S. Sixth Fleet's fast carrier task force, Task Force 60.[23]

U.S. Navy carrier aviation and strategic nuclear warfare

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P2V Neptune takeoff from USS Midway (CVB-41), April 1949
A3D-1 Skywarrior landing aboard USS Forrestal (CVA-59), 1956

Although initially controversial, in the event of a nuclear war, U.S. Navy would supplement, but not supersede the worldwide bombing campaign of the U.S. Air Force's Strategic Air Command, with carrier task forces attacking Soviet naval bases, submarine pens, port facilities, and other maritime targets. This approach was an off-shoot from the immediate post-war strategy to bomb Soviet submarine bases "at the source" developed by Anglo-American naval planners to forestall a third Battle of the Atlantic from taking place.[Note 3][24][25]

Initially, the P2V-3C Neptune was used as on an interim basis to deliver atomic bombs from Midway-class aircraft carriers. The AJ Savage was the first carrier-based attack aircraft designed to operate full-time from a carrier's flight deck. However, neither aircraft was entirely satisfactory. The U.S. Navy found the right carrier-based aircraft to meet its strategic nuclear mission in the jet-powered Douglas A-3 Skywarrior.[5]

The first squadron equipped with the A-3 Skywarrior was Heavy Attack Squadron 1 (VAH-1), and its first overseas deployment was with Task Force 60 in November 1956. Initially, the 12-aircraft squadron was split into two detachments on the task force's two Forrestal-class aircraft carriers, the Saratoga and Forrestal.[26] The next and final heavy attack bomber was the supersonic North American A-5 Vigilante which was converted to tactical strike reconnaissance following its initial deployment with Task Force 60.[27]

In August 1952, Composite Squadron 4 (VC-4) deployed modified McDonnell F2HB Banshee fighters as the first U.S. Navy jet-powered, nuclear-armed light attack aircraft. A four-aircraft VC-4 detachment was assigned to the Franklin D. Roosevelt which participated in a NATO exercise in the north Atlantic before joining Task Force 60 in the Mediterranean.[28]

In August 1960, the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff (JSTPS) was established as inter-service agency based at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, the headquarters for the Strategic Air Command. JSTPS developed a national strategic target list (NSTL) amd a single integrated operational plan (SIOP) for the United States. SIOP was the U.S. joint battle plan for nuclear warfare which now included the U.S. Navy's aircraft carriers and Polaris-missile submarines. Previously, the targeting of nuclear-armed carrier aircraft and Polaris missiles were the responsibility of the fleet commanders in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Europe.[29] As a part of SIOP, Task Force 60 was required to operate within ready steaming distance from its launching zone in the event of a nuclear war. Although ballistic missile submarines became a recognized part of the United States' nuclear triad, TF-60 aircraft carriers retained a residual nuclear warfare capability and remained in SIOP.[30]

On 5 October 1991, U.S. President George H.W. Bush announced the removal of all nuclear weapons from U.S. naval surface warships, concluding the role of Task Force 60 as a sea-based nuclear strike force.[6]

Task Force 60 and NATO's Southern Flank

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In January 1950, the North Atlantic Council approved NATO's military strategic concept of deterring Soviet aggression.[31] NATO military planning took on a renewed urgency following the outbreak of the Korean War, prompting NATO to establish Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) on 2 April 1951.[32][33] Also in 1951, NATO's military southern region was set up as Allied Forces South (AFSOUTH) under the command of Admiral Robert B. Carney, USN, with the commander of the U.S. Sixth Fleet as AFSOUTH's naval commander. When Allied Forces Mediterranean (AFMED) was established in 1952 under Lord Mountbatten, Admiral Carney retained control the Sixth Fleet and Task Force 60 as Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH). Under this command arrangement, STRIKFORSOUTH was effectively the NATO designation for the Sixth Fleet, though additional NATO headquarters personnel were assigned, while maintaining American-only control over the nuclear weapons on board the U.S. aircraft carriers of Task Force 60 as mandated by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946.[34] Task Force 502 was the designation for STRIKFORSOUTH's carrier task force.[7]

Exercise Longstep

For 1952's Exercise Longstep, the objective of the Allied ("Blue") forces was to dislodge enemy ("Green") invasion forces from their occupying positions in the Eastern Mediterranean. Green forces consisted of the Italian 56th Tactical Air Force and submarines of the United States, Great Britain, France, Greece, and Turkey lying in wait to ambush the Blue amphibious convoy departing from Italian embarkation ports. Blue naval forces were centered around Task Force 60 and its two aircraft carriers, the Wasp and Franklin D. Roosevelt (pictured). Air sorties were flown by American and Italian aircraft attacking Blue naval forces, with Blue carrier-based aircraft counter-attacking Green military targets in northern Italy.[35]

For 1958's Operation Deep Water, the exercise's scenario was that NATO forces would protect the Dardanelles from a Soviet invasion in order to prevent the Soviet Black Sea Fleet from gaining access to the Mediterranean Sea.[36][37] Given the overwhelming numerical superiority of Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact military forces, NATO embraced the concept of the nuclear umbrella to protect Western Europe from a Soviet ground invasion.[38] Consequently, Operation Deep Water opened with a simulated atomic air strike in the Gallipoli area on 25 September 1957 that included Task Force 60 carriers Randolph and Franklin D. Roosevelt.[39]

Following the end of the Cold War, NATO's Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH) was re-designated as Naval Striking and Support Forces NATO (STRIKFORNATO) on 1 July 2004 with operational responsibilities throughout NATO's area of responsibilities.[40]

Cold War

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1950s operations

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Forrestal and Lake Champlain (1957)

Task Force 60 supported the U.S. Sixth Fleet's mission of showing the flag on behalf of the United States and its allied throughout the Mediterranean Sea. On 15 July 1951, while servicing with Task Force 60, the carrier Coral Sea hosted Marshall Tito of Yugoslavia who observed carrier operations during a one-day cruise as a demonstration of U.S. support following Yugoslavia's expulsion from the Comintern in 1948.[41]

The presence of the Sixth Fleet and its Task Force 60 also provided a stabilizing presence in the often volatile Middle East. On 14 August 1950, Task Force 60 carriers Midway and Leyte performed an airpower demonstration during a post visit to Beirut, Lebanon. This visit by the Sixth Fleet was made at the request of the Lebanese Government, and it demonstrated the continuing American commitment to the eastern Mediterranean regardless of the operational demands of the Korean War.[42] Between August to November 1957, the Sixth Fleet deployed to the eastern Mediterranean to stabilize a border dispute between Syria and Turkey, a NATO ally. Task Force 60 consisted of the Randolph and Intrepid task groups.[43]

In March 1956, amid growing internal and external turmoil, King Hussein of Jordan dismissed General Sir John Glubb as commander of the Transjordan's Arab Legion. In response, Task Force 60 carriers Coral Sea and Randolph deployed to the eastern Mediterranean with a Sixth Fleet amphibious task group. This crisis ended when a new cabinet was formed.[44] In April 1957, amid a coup attempt against King Hussein, the U.S. Sixth Fleet and the British Mediterranean Fleet deployed to the eastern Mediterranean in a show of force. For this crisis, Task Force 60 consisted of the Intrepid, Lake Champlain, and Forrestal carrier task groups (pictured).[43][45][46]

1956's Suez Crisis was caused by the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser on 26 July 1956. In a coordinated response, the Israeli military launnched Operation Kadesh, the invasion of the Sinai peninsula, on 29 October 1956. This was followed by an Anglo-French invasion force to retake the Suez Canal on 31 October 1967. The British and French navies used the upcoming NATO exercise Beehive to assemble their carrier-invasion fleet for this operation.[47][48] Following orders from the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, the U.S. Sixth Fleet cancelled its planned participation in NATO Exercise Beehive, and Task Force 60's two carriers, Coral Sea and Randolph, were ordered east-southeast of Cyprus to monitor the Anglo-French task force as well as provide air cover for the evacuation of U.S. nationals from Alexandria, Egypt.[48][49][50][51][52] With the crisis continued, a two-carrier force was deployed to the Eastern Atlantic Ocean to reinforce Task Force 60 if needed.[Note 4] Designated Task Force 26, this carrier task force consisted of the Franklin D. Roosevelt and Forrestal under the command of Rear Admiral Murr E. Arnold.[17][52][53][54] The two TF-26 carriers had been loaded with additional nuclear weapons prior to their departure.[53][55] By 22 December 1956, the British-French forces had withdrawn from Egyptian territory, and Israeli forces had withdrawn from Gaza by 19 March 1957.[56]

USS Saratoga
USS Essex

In 1958, an insurrection in Lebanon broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic. On 14 July 1958, a military coup d'état led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew the pro-Western Iraqi government of King Faisal II, prompting Lebanese President Camille Chamoun to request assistance from the United States to help restore order in Lebanon. In accordance with the Eisenhower Doctrine, the United States initiated a military intervention code-named Operation Blue Bat.[57]

On 15 July 1958, the U.S. Sixth Fleet set sail for the eastern Mediterranean, arriving 17 July 1958. Between 15–18 July 1958, three U.S. Marine Corps Battalion Landing Teams landed near Beruit, with U.S. Army troops airlifted from Germany. By the end of 10 July 1958, U.S. ground forces in Lebanon numbered 11,000, and it reached a peak strength of more than 14,000 by 8 August 1958.[57]

For Operation Blue Bat, Task Force 60 initially consisted of the Saratoga and Essex task groups under the overall command of Rear Admiral Howard A. Yeagar.[58][59] TF-60 provided combat air support against potential air attacks from Egypt, Syria or the Soviet Union via Bulgaria. Since British forces deploying to Jordan to support King Hussein's government, RAF aircraft were initially unavailable. Task Force 60 took on the entire air combat mission during the early stages of Operation Blue Bat.[59] The Essex task group was the first carrier force on station, arriving off Beriut on 15 July 1958. Essex launched a 11 aircraft to provide close air support for the first U.S. Marine Battalion Landing Team that went ashore. The Essex task group provided nearly around-the-clock air cover to the Marines through 20 September 1958, On 17 July 1958, the 'Saratoga task group arrived on station and began providing combat air patrol and reconnaissance. Also on that date, Task Force 60 launched 50 aircraft that flew a low-level show of force over the west bank of Jordan River prior the first arrival of British Army forces. Task Force 60 maintained a high-typo of air operations between 3 August and 5 September 1958, flying a total of 6,985 sorties. Task Group 60 operated near 33° North - 33° East while maintaining a loose ship formation for protection against potential nuclear attack. Task Force 60 maintained daytime air cover while it replenished its fuel, stores, and ammunition at night.[60][61] Beginning 23 July 1958, with the crisis easing, Essex and Saratoga began to rotate for shore leave. On 28 August 1958, the Essex task group transited the Suez Canal to reinforce the U.S. Seventh Fleet off the Formosa Straits during the Quemoy-Matsu crisis. On 12 September 1958, the Forrestal and Randolph task groups joined Task Force 60, and the Saratoga departed the Mediterranean Sea on 21 September 1958.[53][62] On 5 September 1958, Task Force 60 ended its air support for Operation Blue Bat. On 8 October 1958, a new Lebanese cabinet was formed, and the Operation Blue Bat ended on 25 October 1958.[63]

1960s operations

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1970s operations

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1980s operations

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Military Operations other than War, 1991–2001

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Global War on Terrorism and the 21st Centrury

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Currently, Task Force 60 is commanded by the commodore of Destroyer Squadron 60 unless the commander of a carrier strike group enters the Mediterranean Sea and consequently assumes command of Task Force 60. For example, in 2000, then-Captain Kevin M. Quinn served as the commodore of Destroyer Squadron 28, and during that squadron's deployment to the U.S. Sixth Fleet, he assumed command of Task Force 60. As Commander TF-60, Quinn led a Joint Task Force to interdict terrorist-associated shipping throughout the Mediterranean Sea.[64] In November 2007, the guided-missile destroyer Forrest Sherman circumnavigated the African continent while performing theater security operations with local military forces as the flagship of Task Group 60.5, the U.S. Navy's Southeast Africa task force.[65][66]

Operation Iraqi Freedom

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For Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 2003 coalition invasion of Iraq, Task Force 60 was designated Combined Task Force 160 (CTF-60) (pictured) under the overall command of Rear Admiral John D. Stufflebeem.[67] Operating from the eastern Mediterranean, the mission of CTF-160 was to provide combat air support to the ground campaign operating in northern Iraq.[68] Combined Task Force 160 consisted of the Theodore Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman carrier strike groups, with the Truman strike group carrying out daytime flight operations and the Theodore Roosevelt strike group carrying out night-time flight operations.[69]

Combined Task Force 160
USS Fort McHenry (2007)

On 19 March 2003, Harry S. Truman Carrier Strike Group and its embarked Carrier Air Wing 3 (CVW-3) began conducting combat missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Over the next 30 days, the Truman strike group dropped more than 700 long tons (710 t) of ordnance in support of U.S. coalition ground forces in northern Iraq, the most ordanace delivered by any carrier strike group during the operation.[70] During that 30 day period, airwing aircraft flew nearly 1,300 combat sorties.[71][72][73] In total, the Truman strike group spent a total 89 consecutive days at sea without a port call during Operation Iraqi Freedom.[69]

For the Theodore Roosevelt strike group, Operation Iraqi Freedom represented a culmination of a greatly accelerated post-overhaul, pre-deployment training schedule.[74] On 22 March 2003, a 20-aircraft strike force destroyed Iraqi command-and-control and infrastructure targets, including one of presidential palace complexes, as well as one of the primary Iraqi AM broadcasting stations.[75] When the carrier Theodore Roosevelt and Carrier Air Wing Eight (CVW-8) returned home on 29 May 2003, the Theodore Roosevelt strike group had flown more than 6,500 sorties (1,003 combat sorties), compiled more than 15,000 flight hours, and delivered more than 500 long tons (510 t) of ordnance.[74][76]

Summarizing his force's accomplishments during Operation Iraqi Freedom, Admiral Stufflebeem called Task Force 60 "the largest U.S. Navy battle force assembled in the Mediterranean for combat since World War II."[69]

Africa Partnership Station

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Main article: Africa Partnership Station

Task Force 60 provides ships and manpower for the Africa Partnership Station (APS) initiative. This effort includes naval support for U.S. Africa Command's training and security assistance operations involving western Africa nations.[9] The first Africa Partnership Station began when Task Group 60.4 departed Naples, Italy, under the command of Captain John Nowell on 29 October 2007. The task group included its flagship, the USS Fort McHenry (pictured), and the USS Swift, a high-speed transport. Task Group 60.4 visited Senegal, Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, and Sao Tome and Principe. Africa Partnership Station 2007 developed cooperative partnerships among the regional maritime services while improving safety and security for the host nations. APS 2007 also supported over 20 humanitarian assistance projects during this deployment.[77]

See also

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References

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Annotations

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  1. ^ As of 2005, Task Force 60 was designated as the Battle Force for the U.S. Sixth Fleet. See Polmar, Norman (2005). The Naval Institute Guide to The Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet, 18th ed. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-59114-685-8. and "U.S. Navy Organization and Missions" (PDF). Seapower Almanac. Navy League of the United States. 2011. Retrieved 2013-07-13. ... Task Force 60, which included the carrier and amphibious strike groups assigned duty in the Mediterranean Sea and Western Atlantic.
  2. ^ Task Force 125 was the designation for U.S. naval forces in the Mediterrranean Sea as a part of United States Twelfth Fleet. See Bartow. From Hot War to Cold, pp. 170–171.
  3. ^ U.S. Navy's Office of Naval Intelligence completed its first analysis of the Soviet Navy in October 1944, and noted Soviet acquisition of advanced German submarine technology. Bartow. From Hot War to Cold, pp. 160–166.
  4. ^ 36° 30' North, 27° 18'17" West, in the eastern Atlantic around the Azores Islands. See USS Forrestal CVA-59. DANFS.

Citations

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  1. ^ Polmar, Norman (2006). Chronology of the Cold War at Sea 1945–1991. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. pp. 201, 208–209. ISBN 978-1-55750-685-6. Hereafter referred to as: Polmar et al. Chronology of the Cold War at Sea. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Sweetman, Jack (2002). American Naval History: An Illustrated Chronology of the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, 1775-Present. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. pp. 296, 302–303. ISBN 978-1-55750-867-6. Retrieved 2013-07-26. Hereafter referred to as: Sweetman. American Naval History: An Illustrated Chronology.
  3. ^ Polmar et al. Chronology of the Cold War at Sea 1945–1991, p. 78.
  4. ^ Polmar, Norman (2008). Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events: Vol. II, 1946–2006. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, Inc. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1-57488-665-8. Here after referred to as: Polmar. Aircraft Carriers, Vol. 2.
  5. ^ a b Miller, Jerry (2009). Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers: How the Bomb Saved Naval Aviation. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 81, 86–87, 98. ISBN 978-1-56098-944-8. Retrieved 2013-07-26. Hereafter referred to as: Miller. Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers.
  6. ^ a b Miller. Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers, p. 231.
  7. ^ a b Chipman, John (1988). NATO's Southern Allies: Internal and External Challenges. London: Taylor & Francis. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-203-16850-9. Retrieved 2013-08-16.
  8. ^ Chipman, John (1988). NATO's Southern Allies: Internal and External Challenges. London: Taylor & Francis. p. 47 (Table 1.5). ISBN 978-0-203-16850-9. Retrieved 2013-08-24.
  9. ^ a b "U.S. Navy Organization and Missions" (PDF). Seapower Almanac. Navy League of the United States. 2011. Retrieved 2013-07-13. ... Task Force 60, which included the carrier and amphibious strike groups assigned duty in the Mediterranean Sea and Western Atlantic. Task Force 60.4 provides ships and manpower for the Africa Partnership Station initiative. This effort includes naval support for U.S. Africa Command's training and security assistance operations, particularly with the regional naval and military forces of nations in Western Africa.
  10. ^ Reynold, Clark G. (1993). The Fast Carriers: The Forging of an Air Navy. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. pp. 211–212, 301. ISBN 978-1-55750-701-3. Retrieved 2013-07-26.
  11. ^ "Wasp". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 2013-07-27.
  12. ^ Polmar, Norman (2006). Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events: Vol. I, 1909–1945. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, Inc. pp. 321–314. ISBN 978-1-57488-663-4.
  13. ^ Jeffrey G., Barlow (2009). From Hot War to Cold: The U.S. Navy and National Security Affairs, 1945–1955. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 168–169, 170. ISBN 978-0-8047-5666-2. Retrieved 2013-07-26. Hereafter referred to as: Bartow. From Hot War to Cold.
  14. ^ Polmar, Norman (2006). Chronology of the Cold War at Sea 1945–1991. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-55750-685-6. Hereafter referred to as: Polmar et al. Chronology of the Cold War at Sea. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Sweetman. American Naval History: An Illustrated Chronology, p. 217.
  16. ^ Polmar et al. Chronology of the Cold War at Sea 1945–1991, p. 7.
  17. ^ a b "Franklin D. Roosevelt". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
  18. ^ Thomas A., Bryson (1980). Tars, Turks, and Tankers: The Role of the United States Navy in the Middle East, 1800–1979. Metuchen, New Jersey, and London: Scarecrow Press. pp. 92–95. ISBN 978-0-8108-1306-9. Retrieved 2013-07-26. Out of print
  19. ^ Captain Paul Ryan, USN (November 1974). "An interview with Captain Henri H. Smith-Hutton, regarding his command of the U.S.S. Little Rock". Oral History Program. USS Little Rock Association. Retrieved 2011-08-04. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  20. ^ Chace, James (2006). "Part 1 – First Skirmishes: The Day the Cold War Started". In Cowley, Robert (ed.). The Cold War: A Military History. New York: Random House. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8129-6716-6.
  21. ^ Polmar et al. Chronology of the Cold War at Sea, p. 8.
  22. ^ Sweetman. American Naval History: An Illustrated Chronology, pp. 217, 219.
  23. ^ Bartow. From Hot War to Cold, p. 286.
  24. ^ Bartow. From Hot War to Cold, pp. 166.
  25. ^ Bartow, Jeffrey G. (2009). Revolt of the Admirals: The Fight for Naval Aviation, 1945–1950. London: Brassey's Inc. pp. 78–80, 105–121. ISBN 978-1-57488-170-7. Retrieved 2013-07-26.
  26. ^ Miller. Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers, pp. 101–102.
  27. ^ Miller. Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers, p. 112.
  28. ^ Miller. Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers, p. 131.
  29. ^ Miller. Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers, pp. 207–208, 212–222.
  30. ^ Miller. Nuclear Weapons and Aircraft Carriers, pp. 222–227, 212–222, 256–257.
  31. ^ "Chapter 3 - The Pace Quickens". NATO the first five years 1949–1954. NATO. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
  32. ^ "Chapter 4 - The Pace Quickens". NATO the first five years 1949–1954. NATO. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
  33. ^ "X" (July 1947). "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" . Foreign Affairs. 25 (4): 575–576. doi:10.2307/20030065. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20030065. {{cite journal}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help)
  34. ^ Maloney, Sean (1995). Securing Command of the Sea: NATO Naval Planning, 1948–1954. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. pp. 172, 186, 193–194. ISBN 978-1-55750-562-0. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
  35. ^ "A Big Step Forward: Operation Longstep" (PDF). All Hands. Washington, DC: BUPERS. pp. 20–21. Retrieved 2011-06-21.
  36. ^ "Emergency Call". Time. 30 September 1957. Retrieved 27 September 2008.; "All Ashore". Time. 7 October 1957. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
  37. ^ Time Inc. (1957-10-07). LIFE. Time Inc. p. 56.
  38. ^ "Chapter 3". NATO the first five years 1949–1954. NATO. Retrieved 2008-11-03.; "Chapter 7". NATO the first five years 1949–1954. NATO. Retrieved 2008-11-03.; "Chapter 9". NATO the first five years 1949–1954. NATO. Retrieved 2008-11-03.; and "Chapter IX-B". NATO the first five years 1949–1954. NATO. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
  39. ^ "CVG-17 (AL) CVA-42 Franklin D. Roosevelt July 12, 1957 - March 5, 1958 (Med)". CV Deployments. GoNavy.jp. December 15, 2010. Retrieved 2011-07-10. and "CVG-4 (AD) CVA-15 Randolph July 1, 1957 - February 24, 1958 (Med)". CV Deployments. GoNavy.jp. December 15, 2010. Retrieved 2011-07-10.
  40. ^ "History". Naval Striking and Support Forces. NATO. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
  41. ^ Adam B. Siegel (February 1991). "The Use of Naval Forces in the Post-War Era: U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps Crisis Response Activity, 1946–1990". CRM-90-246/February 1990. Alexandria, Virginia: Center for Naval Analyses. p. 23. Retrieved 2013-07-29. Hereafter referred to as: Siegel. The Use of Naval Forces, 1946–1990.
  42. ^ Siegel. The Use of Naval Forces, 1946–1990, p. 18.
  43. ^ a b George S. Dragnich (September 1970). "The Lebanon Operation of 1958: A Study of the Crisis Role of the Sixth Fleet" (PDF). Research Contribution 153. Alexandria, Virginia: Center for Naval Analyses. p. 27. Retrieved 2013-08-01. Hereafter referred to as: Dragnich. The Lebanon Operation of 1958.
  44. ^ Siegel. The Use of Naval Forces, 1946–1990, p. 23.
  45. ^ "Wasp". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command. Retrieved 2013-08-02.
  46. ^ Richard Cavendish (2007; Vol. 57, No. 4). "A Failed Coup in Jordan" (PDF). History Today. Retrieved 2013-08-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  47. ^ Ricky-Dale Calhoun (June 8, 2007). "The Musketeer's Cloak: Strategic Deception During the Suez Crisis of 1956". The Art of Strategic Counterintelligence. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2013-07-31.
  48. ^ a b "Document 407. Memorandum From the Secretary of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Wentworth) to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Radford) – Washington, DC". Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957 – Volume XVI, Suez Crisis, July 26–December 31, 1956. Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. October 29, 1956. Retrieved 2013-07-31. Cancel Sixth Fleet participation in NATO exercise "Beehive", and order carrier strike force to positions east and southeast of Cyprus and within six hours' sailing distance of Cyprus.
  49. ^ Polmar. Aircraft Carriers, Vol. 2, pp. 121–131.
  50. ^ "Coral Sea". Retrieved 2013-07-25.
  51. ^ "Randolph". Retrieved 2013-07-25.
  52. ^ a b Waring Hills (October 29, 2010). "American Aircraft Carriers and the Suez Canal 1956". PatriotsPoint.org. Retrieved 2013-07-25.
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  54. ^ "Document 533. Telegram From the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Certain Specified and Unified Commanders – Washington, DC". Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957 – Volume XVI, Suez Crisis, July 26–December 31, 1956. Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. November 6, 1956. Retrieved 2013-07-31. Sail the USS Forrestal, the Franklin D. Roosevelt, one cruiser and three divisions of destroyers toward the Azores.
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Bibliography

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Public Domain This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.

Category:United States Navy task forces

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