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Royal Navy during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

Royal Navy
Active	1793–1815
Country	United Kingdom
Allegiance	King George III
Branch	Navy
Role	Naval warfare
Engagements	French Revolutionary Wars West Indies campaign War of the First Coalition Invasion of Corsica War of the Second Coalition Mediterranean campaign English Wars First Copenhagen expedition Napoleonic Wars West Indies campaign War of the Third Coalition Trafalgar campaign Invasion of Naples War of the Fourth Coalition Gunboat War Second Copenhagen expedition Peninsular War Baltic campaign War of the Fifth Coalition Walcheren campaign War of the Sixth Coalition War of the Seventh Coalition Neapolitan War
Commanders
First Lord of the Admiralty	The Earl of Chatham (1793-1794) Earl Spencer (1794–1801) The Earl of St Vincent (1801–1804) 1st Viscount Melville (1804–1805) Baron Barham (1805–1806) Viscount Howick (1806) Thomas Grenville 1806–1807) Baron Mulgrave (1807–1810) Charles Philip Yorke (1810–1812) 2nd Viscount Melville (1812–1815)
First Naval Lord	Lord Hood (1793–1795) Sir Charles Middleton (1795) James Gambier (1795–1801, 1804–1806, 1807–1808) Sir Thomas Troubridge (1801–1804) John Markham (1806-1807) Sir Richard Bickerton (1808–1812) William Domett (1812–1813) Sir Joseph Yorke (1813-1815)
Notable commanders	Sir Sidney Smith Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson Sir John Duckworth, 1st Baronet Sir George Cockburn, 10th Baronet Thomas, Lord Cochrane Sir James Saumarez

The Royal Navy during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars was instrumental to the success of the Coalition against the First French Empire. Until the Peninsular War, it was the primary weapon of the United Kingdom's war effort against Napoleon, with significant naval victories ensuring British naval and economic supremacy. The Royal Navy ferried allied armies to otherwise inaccessible theatres of war, notably the Armée des Émigrés during the Quiberon campaign and ferried Ottoman armies to where they were needed during the French invasion of Egypt and Syria. The British Army was also ferried to the West Indies for the Caribbean campaign. It also supplied allied armies during their campaigns and provided direct military support during sieges of coastal towns and cities (notably the Siege of Genoa and the Siege of Acre).

Britain's position as the financial backer of the Coalition meant that British naval supremacy was essential to the survival of the Allied war effort, and the British took extensive efforts to maintain it. When Spain allied with France in 1795, this presented a threat to British naval supremacy, and their combined fleets, if amassed near the English Channel, could present a legitimate invasion threat. British naval victories at Cape St. Vincent, Cape Finisterre and Trafalgar neutralised this threat. The creation of the Second League of Armed Neutrality provoked concerns from the British who believed (perhaps rightfully) that French domination of the European mainland would cause the comparatively large navy of Denmark–Norway to fall into French hands, presenting a new naval threat. At the First and Second Battles of Copenhagen, the British seized or destroyed the entire Danish fleet, but Denmark's status as a neutral country made the attacks highly controversial. Even King George III disapproved of the actions taken by own navy. The government and it's supporters in Parliament, including William Wilberforce, defended the actions against Denmark as necessary for British defence. Denmark–Norway allied with France in response to these attacks, but the main threat of the Danish Navy had been neutralised, with the Danish war effort against Britain being carried out via gunboats rather than the more powerful ships of the line which constituted the main threat to Britain. the Treaty of Tilsit, in which the Russian Empire allied with France, also posed a new, but not as serious, naval threat to Britain. The resulting Anglo-Russian War was of a much smaller scale than Britain's wars against Denmark, Spain and France and was mostly limited to minor naval actions and diplomatic incidents. Admiral James Saumarez carried out a campaign in the Baltic in which individual ships of the British Baltic Fleet captured Russian ships to disrupt their war effort against Sweden during the Finnish War. Russia's commitment to the alliance with Napoleon proved lukewarm, and no major battles were directly fought between Britain and Russia during the conflict, although it was planned that the British would ferry a field army under Sir John Moore to fight alongside the Swedes, but disagreements between the British and Swedish governments led to Moore being ordered home.

Tenets and Tropes of the Lost Cause Myth

The myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy is varied and offers a range of pro-Confederate historical perspectives on the American Civil War. Not all of these notions are consistent with each other and adherents to the Lost Cause may believe some and not believe others, depending on preference or biases related to other historical events. The main idea of the Lost Cause is that the Confederacy did not fight to preserve the institution of slavery, but fought for "states rights".

Some of the other outstanding beliefs and ideas of the myth are:

• That the cause of the Confederate States of America was noble, righteous, and comparable to that of the Patriots of the American Revolutionary War.
• That the Confederacy was a sovereign nation fighting for its independence.
• That the planter class of the Antebellum South was a noble caste of society that adhered to a strict code of honour based on chivalry and paternalism. Adherents of this trope claim that the "Southern gentlemen" had inherited this tradition from the nobility of Europe, particularly the Cavaliers of the English Civil War.
• That American slavery was a comparatively benign and benevolent institution.
• That Abraham Lincoln was a tyrant who violated the Constitution of the United States and the civil liberties of Americans on numerous occasions, and that he was not as strongly anti-slavery as often depicted.
• That Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation did not free any slaves in practice, and was purely a political move to placate abolitionists and dissuade Britain or France from intervening in the war.
• That tens of thousands of free black men enlisted in the Confederate army as soldiers and saw frequent action.
• That the Confederate military leadership, especially Generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson, were near-flawless military geniuses comparable to Napoleon Bonaparte.
• That Confederate General James Longstreet was a traitor to the South and bore sole responsibility for the Confederate defeat at the Battle of Gettysburg.
• That the Union Army (especially the part of the army under the command of William Tecumseh Sherman) was guilty of numerous war crimes, including mass rape, looting, murder and the illegal confiscation of Southern property.
• That the Confederate defeat in the war was due to the superior industrial and population capacity of the North, not due to the failures of the Confederate leadership or the competence of the North.
• That Ulysses S. Grant was not a great general, and that he only defeated Lee due to "overwhelming numbers and resources". Grant's high casualty figures in the Overland Campaign, as well as his alcoholism, are often cited as evidence of this.
• That the recruitment of Native Americans such as Stand Watie to the Confederate cause was based entirely on altruism, and that a Confederate victory may have ended the American Indian Wars.

Assessments of Coalition Generals

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington

The Duke of Wellington

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington was the most prominent British general of the Napoleonic Wars and is considered one of the greatest strategic battlefield commanders in history. He is known for leading the coalition armies in the Peninsular War and for being the leading Allied general who defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.

Wellington is best remembered as a primarily defensive general. Although some of his greatest victories were in offensive battles (notably Salamanca and Vitoria), he was undoubtedly a master of defensive tactics and strategy. A signature tactic of his was reverse slope defence, in which he would position much of his army behind a gentle slope or ridge to cover them from artillery and conceal his numbers and movements, exploiting the overconfidence of his enemies. There are many examples of Wellington using this tactic successfully, including the Battle of Vimeiro and the Battle of Bussaco. During the third Portuguese campaign, Wellington conducted a defensive scorched earth strategy which starved the army of Marshal André Masséna as it pushed through the country, while Wellington pulled back to an exceptionally strong defensive position at the Lines of Torres Vedras, a series of redoubts and fortresses around Lisbon which had been under construction for over a year. In the ensuing standoff, Masséna's supply lines were overstretched and frequently attacked by Portuguese partisans, while Wellington's were secure thanks to British naval superiority. This strategy of applying scorched earth tactics to one's own territory was later replicated on a much larger scale during the French invasion of Russia. Although the campaign in Portugal contained no decisive, dramatic, war-winning victories, Wellington's strategy was genius by design and extremely adaptable. Masséna, regarded as one of Napoleon's best generals, never held senior command again.

Wellington was one of the first Allied generals to successfully command a large multinational army. His army in Iberia was made up of British, Portuguese and Spanish troops, and also contained volunteers from French-occupied states in Central Europe, with Charles von Alten and the Prince of Orange serving as prominent generals. The Spanish, British and Portuguese armies were all relatively inexperienced, but the British army was far better trained and equipped by comparison, and Wellington made sure that the Portuguese and Spanish troops under his command adhered to the same standards. Wellington also received considerable support from Spanish and Portuguese guerrillas, who harassed the French in the countryside and provided vital intelligence to Wellington's army; this in turn made him less reliant on cavalry for reconnaissance. Wellington imposed strict standards of discipline, punishing looters with flogging, but it was difficult for him to maintain this standard, and looting among the rank and file proved a persistent problem in his campaigns. Wellington also did not rely on an extensive staff system and preferred to give orders in person where possible. This meant he was constantly close to the front, heightening his popularity with the men, but it also meant that he relied heavily on his divisional and corps commanders in larger battles. Some of these, such as Rowland Hill, Thomas Picton and John Le Marchant, were exceptionally talented, while others, such as The Earl of Uxbridge and Lord Dalhousie, were less so.

Wellington's most famous victory is the Battle of Waterloo, where he brilliantly defended a strong position of his own choosing, giving the Prussians under Field Marshal von Blücher time to come to his aid, where the two armies inflicted Napoleon's final defeat. Using his signature reverse slope tactic, Wellington kept much of his army out of the range of the French artillery. His troops successfully held a crucial farmhouse on his right wing and, recognising that the attack was a feint to weaken his centre, he stayed perfectly still, forcing Napoleon to use more drastic methods to weaken his line. After successfully holding off French attacks for several hours, notably countering a poorly executed cavalry charge led by Marshal Michel Ney with excellent use of infantry squares, the Prussians began to arrive on Napoleon's right flank, stretching his forces further and taking his headquarters at Plancenoit. The death blow was dealt to Napoleon's army when, in an attempt to grasp victory from the jaws of defeat, he ordered his hitherto undefeated Imperial Guard to march forward and break Wellington's severely weakened line, but after several rounds of devastating volley fire, the Guard wavered and retreated, causing the whole French army to retreat in disarray. It was Wellington's last battle and, although he would have broken if not for the arrival of the Prussians, it was the victory with which he would forever be associated. He retired from active command in 1818.

The Duke of Wellington inflicted more defeats on the French Imperial Army than any other general of the Napoleonic Wars. He held a five-star rank in the armies of eight countries (see Batons of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington).

Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen

Archduke Charles

Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen was a prominent Austrian Field Marshal who was one of the best generals of the Napoleonic Wars. The son of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor and the brother of Emperor Francis I of Austria, he is best remembered for defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Aspern-Essling in 1809. This was Napoleon's first major defeat since becoming Emperor of the French, his first major defeat in Europe and his first battlefield defeat in ten years, with his most recent defeat before that point being at the Siege of Acre in 1799.

Charles commanded the Coalition forces during the Rhine campaign of 1796, which saw invading French armies pushed out of Germany via a string of victories against French armies of equal or greater size than his own. Unfortunately, his campaign would prove strategically fruitless, as Napoleon was simultaneously carrying out his Italian campaign which ultimately removed Austria from the conflict. Charles himself was sent to Italy to negotiate the Austrian surrender. He then commanded Austrian armies during the War of the Second Coalition, winning more victories at the Battle of Ostrach and the First Battle of Zurich, although these were undone by General Moreau's victory at the Battle of Hohenlinden. Charles was dreadfully underused in the years that followed, with his main army in Italy being avoided by Napoleon in the War of the Third Coalition, when his talents could have presented a better threat to Napoleon at Ulm and Austerlitz.

In 1806, Charles was made Commander-in-Chief of the army by his brother, the Emperor. During his tenure, he reformed the Austrian Army and, taking inspiration from Napoleon's corps system, he too reorganised his army into "Korps", being the first Allied general to imitate Napoleon in this way. The rest of the armies of Europe, notably Russia, would follow in Austria's footsteps and develop their own corps systems. He developed new tactics and strategies based on the concept of a "nation at arms", reforming the Austrian Army to be more compatible with the masses of conscripts that would inevitably be raised in the event of another war with France. Notably, he developed the "battalion mass" formation, an infantry formation in which an entire battalion would form a closely packed column, effectively a huge mass of men, before advancing. In theory, this was a bad formation, as it was extremely vulnerable to artillery, could not make use of most of its men, and had limited firepower, but it was well suited for inexperienced conscripts, as it did not require much complex manoeuvring to switch formation from mass to line. The battalion mass could also counter cavalry effectively with the same effect as an infantry square, as soldiers at the edge of the formation could simply close up, fix bayonets and turn outward. Again, this was well suited for conscripts, as the square formation required training, discipline and speed, while the battalion mass only required a minimal amount of discipline.

Charles wrote many treatises on military leadership, including on the role and responsibilities of a chief-of-staff and on the purpose of fielding large armies. He described himself as a cautious general, but it can be argued that he was simply extremely observant of the needs of his army, rather than cautious. He initiated the War of the Fifth Coalition with a surprise invasion of Bavaria, which caught Napoleon off guard for a moment and led to quick successes, although Napoleon did manage to push him out of Germany. His victory over Napoleon at Aspern-Essling is an example of a great, if costly, victory of deception. Charles positioned his entire army out of Napoleon's sight and behind the Danube River, misleading Napoleon about the size of his army and trapping him against the river. Charles then made use of his superior numbers, attacking the French with his entire force, while floating obstacles down river to prevent the rest of the French army from crossing. Napoleon retreated the next day. Charles was heavily criticized for not following up on his victory and pursuing Napoleon, but he had suffered over 25,000 casualties, even more than Napoleon, and his army was in no condition to pursue. Napoleon was able to bounce back from the defeat and inflicted an equally costly defeat on Charles at the Battle of Wagram six weeks later. Although it's strategic consequences were short lived, Charles' victory at Aspern-Essling had demonstrated his talents and the vulnerability of Napoleon; it also led to the death of Marshal Jean Lannes, one of Napoleon's most able commanders. Charles has been described as the only general who beat Napoleon "in a fair fight", as other generals who defeated him later, such as Kutuzov, Schwarzenberg, Blücher and Wellington, did so with vast superiority in numbers or in a much better strategic position.

Regrettably, Charles did not see active command again after 1809, with the role of commander-in-chief going to Schwarzenberg when Austria joined the Sixth Coalition in 1813.

Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher

Prince von Blücher

Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prince of Wahlstatt, was a Prussian Generalfeldmarschall who served as the leading Prussian general during the War of the Sixth Coalition and the War of the Seventh Coalition. Blücher had served in the Seven Years' War and the War of the Fourth Coalition before this. He is best known for commanding the Army of Silesia during the German campaign of 1813 and the Campaign in north-east France in 1814, during which time he played a key role in the Battle of Leipzig and defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Laon. He also played a major role in the Waterloo campaign, delivering a decisive flanking manoeuvre at the Battle of Waterloo which relieved pressure on Wellington's line and caused the French army to fall into disarray.

Blücher's strategies and tactics was defined by extreme aggression, almost to the point of recklessness. He had a reputation for being a vulgar personality, even to the point of frustrating Frederick the Great during his early career, when he was just a junior officer. This agression was more useful than reckless, however, as it meant that Blücher's armies would move at speeds which not even Napoleon could predict at times. His arrival at the Battle of Leipzig was much sooner than Napoleon had expected, and may have helped to turn the tide of the battle in the Allies' favour. Blücher's aggression made him extremely valuable to the Coalition, although he often had to be reigned in by both his staff officers and the commander-in-chief, Prince Schwarzenberg. In the campaign in France, Blücher made the mistake of spreading his army out, opening it up to defeat in detail. Napoleon swiftly took advantage of this, defeating each of his corps in quick succession before defeating Blücher's army (which was now much smaller) at the Battle of Vauchamps. This series of battles became known as the Six Days' Campaign, and is regarded as one of the Emperor's greatest campaigns. Blücher showed unusual caution for the rest of the French campaign. He won an impressive defensive victory against Napoleon at Laon, but did not pursue Napoleon, having been misled about the size of his army.

During the Waterloo campaign, the 72-year-old Field Marshal showed a great amount of personal bravery and honour, leading a mass cavalry charge in person at the Battle of Ligny, although he was shot from his horse and nearly captured by the French in the process. It is fortunate, then, that Blücher's staff officers were also capable commanders in their own right and could take command in the event that Blücher found himself wishing to lead his army from the front. If Blücher had had subordinate officers who were any less talented, he may be remembered as more reckless than brave. When his staff officers expressed scepticism in Wellington's ability to hold the ground at Waterloo, Blücher ignored them, believing that it would be a blight on his honour to not help Wellington. This was consistent with his behaviour at Leipzig. Blücher's arrival at the battle on Napoleon's right flank undoubtedly saved Wellington's army, which was at the point of breaking. The specific way in which Blücher had arrived was also beneficial to Wellington, as he had extended his line to connect it with Wellington's extreme left, allowing for easy coordination between the two armies. The Prussians, with their usual speed and ferocity, quickly took the farmhouse of Plancenoit, which Napoleon had previously used as his headquarters. Rumours of complete encirclement spread through the French ranks and, after Wellington defeated the Imperial Guard, they broke ranks and fled, causing a complete victory for the Allies. The combination of Blücher's aggression and speed with Wellington's caution and expert defensive tactics had made Waterloo one of the greatest Allied victories of the Napoleonic Wars.

Tsar Alexander I of Russia

Emperor Alexander I

Alexander I was Emperor of Russia following the assassination of his father, Paul I, and was one of the most prominent leaders during the Napoleonic Wars. Initially an enemy of Napoleon, he became an ally of the French Emperor following the Treaties of Tilsit in 1807, only to join the coalition again as a result of the French invasion of Russia in 1812. As a result of Russian victories during the conflict, he also became Grand Duke of Finland in 1809 and King of Poland from 1814.

Alexander was much younger than Napoleon, and much more eager for glory in battle. It was with this mindset that he forced the allied Austrian and Russian armies under General Mikhail Kutuzov to turn around from their strategic retreat and face Napoleon, even though he was in a strong defensive position. This led to the disaster at the Battle of Austerlitz, which is both one of Napoleon's greatest victories, and one of Alexander's greatest blunders, one from which it seems that he never learned.

Alexander took a relatively hands off approach to the 1812 campaign, in which Napoleon invaded Russia, leaving command in the hands of the much more competent generals Barclay de Tolly and Pyotr Bagration. However, Barclay and Bagration fiercely disagreed about the kind of strategy they should adopt. Barclay had adopted a policy of attrition warfare, applying a scorched earth strategy as he retreated and depriving Napoleon of Russian loot, which he needed to maintain his campaign. Bagration believed that the Russian Army should have taken a more offensive approach. It did not help that the two most senior Russian generals were not ethnically Russian, and were now actively destroying Russian lands. Alexander, from Saint Petersburg, attempted to counter the unpopularity of Barclay and Bagration by giving overall command to Kutuzov, whom he promoted to Field Marshal and sent to the front. Kutuzov was more popular with the Russian people, and had recently won great victories against the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War, helping to recover some of his reputation from the Emperor's debacle at Austerlitz. However, Kutuzov agreed that Barclay's strategy had been most effective, and continued it. Alexander's intervention, perhaps fortunately, had had little affect on the Russian strategy. The Russians suffered a bloody defeat at the Battle of Borodino, but it was equally bloody for the French, and failed to be decisive. When Napoleon arrived in Moscow, to find it burning and empty, he sent a message to Alexander, hoping that the Tsar would concede after the holy city had been taken. Alexander did not respond and the result was that Napoleon waited too long to retreat and suffered one of the most humiliating strategic failures of his career. It was probably the only time Alexander had an objectively positive effect on the coalition war effort.

After Napoleon's retreat from Russia, neutral countries across Europe, notably Sweden, Prussia and Austria, declared war on France, beginning the War of the Sixth Coalition. Alexander, now eager for battle, decided to take overall command of the Allied armies, with the title of Supreme Commander. In practice, the Austrian Prince of Schwarzenberg was the actual commander-in-chief, while other generals held command of their own armies, but Alexander still had to approve of his plans. Alexander was present at the battles of Dresden, Leipzig, Arcis-sur-Aube and Paris, although his role was minimal. Despite this, when the Allies achieved victory, the Tsar seemed convinced that he was a military genius on par with Napoleon, and that it had been his brilliant strategy that saved Europe. The Austrian foreign minister, Klemens von Metternich, described him as "the biggest baby I have ever met", and there was a reason for it. Alexander's childish behaviour at the Congress of Vienna helped to taint what could have been a new era for Europe; he sacrificed the independence of Poland and made numerous empty, but worrying, threats of war with the other powers, forcing them to accede to his demands.

Alexander may not have been the worst general of the Napoleonic Wars, but he was the most prominent bad general. His immaturity and his desperate need to be seen as equal to Napoleon caused several strategic setbacks for the Allies, and he was more than willing to throw his allies under the bus if he could ingratiate his own ego. He was never trusted by his allies, whether it was Napoleon or his fellow Coalition monarchs.

Corps of the Grande Armée

Corps	Commander(s)
I Corps	Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte Louis-Nicolas Davout Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon Claude-Victor Perrin Dominique Vandamme
II Corps	Jean-Baptiste Bessières Jean Lannes Auguste de Marmont Nicolas Oudinot Claude-Victor Perrin Honoré Charles Reille Jean Reynier Jean-de-Dieu Soult
III Corps	Louis-Nicolas Davout Michel Ney Joseph Souham Dominique Vandamme
IV Corps	Eugène de Beauharnais Henri Gatien Bertrand Étienne Maurice Gérard François Joseph Lefebvre André Masséna Horace François Sébastiani Jean-de-Dieu Soult
V Corps	Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon Jean Lannes Jacques Lauriston François Joseph Lefebvre André Masséna Édouard Mortier Józef Poniatowski Anne Jean Marie René Savary
VI Corps	Auguste de Marmont Georges Mouton Michel Ney Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
VII Corps	Pierre Augereau François Joseph Lefebvre Nicolas Oudinot Jean Reynier Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
VIII Corps	Jean-Andoche Junot André Masséna Édouard Mortier Józef Poniatowski Dominique Vandamme
IX Corps	Pierre Augereau Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte Jérôme Bonaparte Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon Claude-Victor Perrin
X Corps	François Joseph Lefebvre Jacques MacDonald Jean Rapp
XI Corps	Pierre Augereau Jacques MacDonald Auguste de Marmont
XII Corps	Nicolas Oudinot
XIII Corps	Louis-Nicolas Davout
XIV Corps	Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
I Cavalry Corps	Jean-Pierre Doumerc Joachim Murat Étienne de Nansouty Pierre Claude Pajol Victor de Fay
II Cavalry Corps	Jean-Baptiste Bessières Rémy Joseph Isidore Exelmans Louis-Pierre Montbrun Antoine-Louis Decrest Horace François Sébastiani
III Cavalry Corps	Jean-Toussaint Arrighi de Casanova Emmanuel de Grouchy François Étienne de Kellermann
IV Cavalry Corps	Victor de Fay François Étienne de Kellermann Édouard Jean Baptiste Milhaud
V Cavalry Corps	Samuel-François Lhéritier Édouard Jean Baptiste Milhaud Pierre Claude Pajol
VI Cavalry Corps	François Étienne de Kellermann

Coalition Wars Infoboxes

War of the First Coalition
Part of the French Revolutionary Wars
Left to right, top to bottom: Battle of Valmy, Battle of Jemmapes, Siege of Toulon, Battle of Arcole, Battle of Rivoli, Battle of Cape St. Vincent
Location Europe, West Indies, North Atlantic Result French Republican victory Coalition members make seperate peaces with France Sardinia: Treaty of Paris The Papal States: Treaty of Tolentino Habsburg monarchy: Treaty of Campo Formio Prussia, Spain and Hesse-Kassel: Peace of Basel Royalist counterrevolutions supressed Great Britain remains at war with France Territorial changes France annexes the Austrian Netherlands, Savoy and the Left Bank of the Rhine French sister republics established: Batavian Republic Cisalpine Republic Ligurian Republic Republic of Florence dissolved
Belligerents
Habsburg monarchy Holy Roman Empire Hanover Hesse-Kassel Württemberg Baden Austria Habsburg Netherlands Prussia Great Britain (from 1793) Corsica (1794–1796) French Rebels Royalists Armée des Émigrés Catholic and Royal Armies Federalists Dutch Republic (1793–1795) Spain (1793–1795) Sardinia (until 1796) Portugal (from 1793) Naples (until 1796) Papal States	Kingdom of France (until September 1792) French Republic (From September 1792) Batavian Republic (from 1795) Spain (from 1795)
Commanders and leaders
Francis II Archduke Charles Prince Josias Johann Peter Beaulieu József Alvinczi Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser Frederick William II Duke of Brunswick George III William Pitt Duke of York David Dundas Lord Howe Lord Hood John Jervis Horatio Nelson Comte de Provence Duc d'Artois Louis Joseph de Bourbon Jacques Cathelineau † Maurice d'Elbée  Henri de la Rochejaquelein † William V of Orange Prince William Charles IV (1793–1795) Prince John Victor Amadeus III Pius VI Michelangelo da Vigevano	Louis XVI  Maximilien Robespierre  Paul Barras Napoleon Bonaparte Jean François Carteaux Comte de Custine  Jacques François Dugommier † Charles François Dumouriez Lazare Hoche Jean-Baptiste Jourdan François Christophe de Kellermann Jean Victor Moreau Charles IV (from 1795) José de Córdoba y Ramos

War of the Second Coalition
Part of the French Revolutionary Wars
Left to right, top to bottom: Battle of the Pyramids, Battle of the Nile, Battle of Marengo, Battle of Hohenlinden
Location Europe, North Africa, West Asia Result French Victory Habsburg monarchy signs the Treaty of Lunéville United Kingdom signs the Treaty of Amiens Territorial changes France retains territorial gains from the War of the First Coalition France gains the Louisiana Territory Helvetic Republic established Russia establishes the Septinsular Republic Irish Republic dissolved Acts of Union dissolve the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland and create the United Kingdom
Belligerents
Great Britain (until 1801) Ireland United Kingdom (from 1801) Ottoman Empire Egypt Syria Habsburg monarchy Austria Russia (until 1800) Naples Sicily Portugal Sardinia	France Batavian Republic Cisalpine Republic Helvetic Republic Irish Republic Ligurian Republic Parthenopaean Republic Spain
Commanders and leaders
George III William Pitt Henry Addington Duke of York Ralph Abercromby † Horatio Nelson Sydney Smith Selim III Jezzar Pasha Murad Bey Ibrahim Bey Mustafa Pasha (POW) Francis II Archduke Charles Michael von Melas Paul I Alexander Suvorov # Alexander Korsakov Johann von Fersen Fyodor Ushakov Ferdinand IV	Paul Barras Napoleon Bonaparte Louis-Alexandre Berthier Guillaume Brune Louis Desaix † Thomas-Alexandre Dumas (POW) Barthélemy Joubert † Jean-Baptiste Kléber X Jean Lannes Jacques MacDonald André Masséna Jacques-François Menou  Jean Victor Moreau Joachim Murat François-Paul Brueys † Charles IV Manuel Godoy

War of the Third Coalition
Part of the Napoleonic Wars
Left to Right, Top to Bottom: Battle of Ulm, Battle of Trafalgar, Battle of Austerlitz
Date 18 May 1803/11 April 1805 – 18 July 1806 Location Europe Result Franco-Spanish victory Austria signs Peace of Pressburg Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire Creation of the Confederation of the Rhine Russia and Britain remain at war with France Britain retains naval supremacy Territorial changes Swabia ceded to Württemberg and Baden Tyrol, Vorarlberg and Augsburg ceded to Bavaria Venetia, Istria and Dalmatia ceded to Italy Creation of the Principality of Lucca and Piombino Salzburg and Würzburg ceded to Austria as compensation France occupies Naples and establishes it as a French client state
Belligerents
United Kingdom Austria Russia Naples Sicily Sweden Hanover	France Batavian Republic Italy Kingdom of Etruria Spain Bavaria Baden
Commanders and leaders
George III Henry Addington William Pitt # William Grenville Horatio Nelson † Cuthbert Collingwood Robert Calder Francis I Archduke Charles Karl Mack von Leiberich Franz von Weyrother Alexander I Mikhail Kutusov Pyotr Bagration Ferdinand IV & III Gustav IV Adolf	Napoleon I Louis-Alexandre Berthier Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte Jean-Baptiste Bessières Louis-Nicolas Davout Jean Lannes André Masséna Joachim Murat Jean-de-Dieu Soult Pierre-Charles Villeneuve (POW) Maximilian I Joseph Karl Philipp von Wrede Charles IV Federico Gravina (DOW)

War of the Fourth Coalition
Part of the Napoleonic Wars
Date 9 October 1806 – 9 July 1807 Location Central and Eastern Europe
Belligerents
Prussia Russia United Kingdom (naval support) Sweden	France Etruria Holland Italy Naples Saxony (from 11 Dec 1806) Switzerland Spain
Commanders and leaders
Frederick William III Duke of Brunswick † Gebhard von Blücher Alexander I Levin von Bennigsen George III William Grenville Duke of Portland

Peninsular War
Part of the Napoleonic Wars
Left to Right, Top to Bottom: Dos de Mayo Uprising, Battle of Bailén, Battle of Somosierra, Battle of Corunna, Battle of Salamanca, Battle of Vitoria
Date 27 October 1807/2 May 1808 – 17 April 1814 Location Iberian Peninsula Result Coalition victory Deposition of Joseph I and restoration of Ferdinand VII to the Spanish Throne Spanish American Wars of Independence break out in South America Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil until 1821 Approximately half a million Spanish dead
Belligerents
Portugal Spain (from May 1808) United Kingdom Sicily	France Napoleonic Spain Duchy of Warsaw Italy Holland Confederation of the Rhine Spain (until May 1808)
Commanders and leaders
Prince John Bernardim de Andrade Francisco da Silveira Luís do Rego Ferdinand VII Francisco Javier Castaños Joaquín Blake José de Palafox Gregorio García de la Cuesta Juan Martín Díez Francisco Espoz y Mina George III George, Prince Regent Duke of Portland Spencer Perceval X Earl of Liverpool Lord Wellington John Moore † William Beresford Rowland Hill Thomas Graham	Napoleon I Charles IV Joseph I Mariano de Urquijo Pierre Augereau Jean-Baptiste Bessières Bertrand Clauzel Pierre Dupont Jean-Baptiste Jourdan Jean-Andoche Junot Jean Lannes Auguste de Marmont André Masséna Jeannot de Money Édouard Mortier Joachim Murat Michel Ney Laurent Saint-Cyr Jean-de-Dieu Soult Louis-Gabriel Suchet Claude-Victor Perrin

War of the Fifth Coalition
Part of the Napoleonic Wars
Left to right, top to bottom: Battle of Eckmühl, Battle of Ratisbon, Battle of Aspern-Essling, Battle of Wagram
Location Germany, Austria, The Netherlands
Belligerents
Austria United Kingdom Portugal Spain Tyrol Gottscheers	France Confederation of the Rhine Baden Bavaria Saxony Westphalia Württemberg Duchy of Warsaw Italy Naples Holland Napoleonic Spain Russia
Commanders and leaders
Francis I Archduke Charles Archduke John Archduke Ferdinand Johann von Hiller Prince Friedrich Hohenzollern Johann I Joseph of Liechtenstein George III Duke of Portland Spencer Perceval Earl of Chatham Thomas Cochrane Viscount Wellington Andreas Hofer  Johann Erker	Napoleon I Louis-Alexandre Berthier Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte Jean-Baptiste Bessieres Jean Lannes † Jacques MacDonald André Masséna Maximilian I Joseph Karl Philipp von Wrede Frederick Augustus I Józef Poniatowski Eugène de Beauharnais Joachim Murat Joseph I Alexander I

French Invasion of Russia
Location Russian Empire Result Russian victory
Belligerents
Russia United Kingdom (naval support)	France Italy Duchy of Warsaw Naples Confederation of the Rhine Baden Bavaria Saxony Westphalia Württemberg Austria Prussia
Commanders and leaders
Alexander I Barclay de Tolly Pyotr Bagration † Levin von Bennigsen Mikhail Kutusov Mikhail Miloradovich Alexander Tormasov Peter Wittgenstein	Napoleon I Pierre Augereau Eugène de Beauharnais Louis-Alexandre Berthier Jean-Baptiste Bessières Jérôme Bonaparte Louis-Nicolas Davout Jean-Andoche Junot Michel Ney Jacques MacDonald Joachim Murat Nicolas Oudinot Jean Reynier Laurent Saint-Cyr Karl von Scwarzenberg Claude Victor-Perrin Ludwig Yorck

War of the Sixth Coalition
Part of the Napoleonic Wars
Left to Right, Top to Bottom: Battle of Dresden, Battle of the Katzbach, Battle of Leipzig, Battle of Laon, Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, Battle of Paris
Date 24 December 1812 – 30 May 1814 Location Europe Result Coalition Victory First Abdication of Napoleon Exile of Napoleon to Elba Restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy in France Congress of Vienna begins Territorial changes Duchy of Warsaw dissolved Kingdom of Italy dissolved Confederation of the Rhine dissolved Kingdom of Westphalia dissolved Restoration of Hanover as a kingdom Remaining German states granted independence French annexation of the Netherlands reversed; creation of the Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands Norway is ceded to the Swedish Crown
Belligerents
Russia Austria (from 1813) United Kingdom Prussia Sweden Spain Portugal Sicily Sardinia Mecklenburg-Schwerin Bavaria (from 1813) Baden (from 1813) Saxony (from 1813) Württemberg (from 1813) Netherlands (from 1813) Denmark (from 1814)	France Naples Duchy of Warsaw Italy Napoleonic Spain Confederation of the Rhine (until 1813) Baden Bavaria Saxony Westphalia Württemberg Denmark–Norway
Commanders and leaders
Alexander I Levin von Bennigsen Peter Wittgenstein Barclay de Tolly Mikhail Miloradovich Francis I Karl von Schwarzenberg George, Prince Regent Earl of Liverpool Marquess of Wellington Frederick William III Gebhard von Blücher Ludwig Yorck Charles John Ferdinand VII Prince John Maximilian I Joseph (from 1813) Karl Philipp von Wrede Frederick Augustus I (from 1813) William I	Napoleon I  Louis-Alexandre Berthier Jean-Baptiste Bessieres † Louis-Nicolas Davout Jean-Baptiste Jourdan Jacques MacDonald Auguste de Marmont Michel Ney Nicolas Oudinot Jean-de-Dieu Soult Louis-Gabriel Suchet Dominique Vandamme Eugène de Beauharnais Joachim-Napoleon I Joseph I Maximilian I Joseph (until 1813) Frederick Augustus I (until 1813) Józef Poniatowski † Jérôme I Frederick VI

War of the Seventh Coalition
Part of the Napoleonic Wars
Left to Right, Top to Bottom: Battle of Quatre Bras, Battle of Ligny, Battle of Waterloo
Date 13 March 1815 – 8 July 1815 Location Europe Result Coalition victory Second Abdication of Napoleon Second Bourbon Restoration Napoleon exiled to St.Helena Overthrow of Joachim Murat and restoration of Ferdinand IV to the throne of Naples Congress of Vienna continues
Belligerents
United Kingdom Prussia Austria Russia Spain Portugal Sweden Bourbon Restoration Netherlands Hanover Brunswick Nassau Bavaria Württemberg Saxony Tuscany Switzerland Denmark	France Naples
Commanders and leaders
George, Prince Regent Earl of Liverpool Duke of Wellington Earl of Uxbridge Rowland Hill Frederick Maitland Frederick William III Gebhard von Blücher August von Gneisenau Johann von Thielmann Friedrich von Bülow Francis I Karl von Schwarzenberg Archduke Charles Johann Frimont Frederick Bianchi Alexander I Barclay de Tolly Louis XVIII William I William, Prince of Orange Niklaus Franz von Bachmann	Napoleon I  Jérôme Bonaparte Guillaume Brune X Louis-Nicolas Davout Emmanuel de Grouchy Michel Ney  Jean-de-Dieu Soult Louis-Gabriel Suchet Joachim Murat

World War I Infobox

World War I
Location The World
Belligerents
Allied Powers France United Kingdom and British Empire Canada Australia New Zealand Newfoundland South Africa India Russia (until 1917) Serbia Belgium Italy (from 1915) Japan United States (from 1917)	Central Powers Germany Austria-Hungary Ottoman Empire Bulgaria (from 1915)
Commanders and leaders
Raymond Poincaré Prime Ministers René Viviani Aristide Briand Paul Painlevé Georges Clemenceau George V Prime Ministers Herbert Asquith David Lloyd George Robert Borden Joseph Cook Andrew Fisher Billy Hughes William Massey Edward Morris Louis Botha Nicholas II Prime Ministers Ivan Goremykin Boris Shturmer Alexander Trepov Nikolai Golitsyn Peter I Prime Ministers Nikola Pašić Albert I Prime Ministers Charles de Broqueville Gérard Cooreman Victor Emmanuel III Prime Ministers Antonio Salandra Paolo Boselli Vittorio Orlando Yoshihito Prime Ministers Ōkuma Shigenobu Terauchi Masatake Woodrow Wilson	Wilhelm II Chancellors Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg Georg Michaelis Georg von Hertling Max von Baden Franz Joseph I Charles I Heads of Government Karl von Stürgkh Ernest von Koerber Heinrich Clam-Martinic Ernst Seidler von Feuchtenegg Max Hussarek von Heinlein István Tisza Sándor Wekerle Mehmed V Mehmed VI Grand Viziers Said Halim Pasha Talaat Pasha Ferdinand I Prime Ministers Vasil Radoslavov Aleksandar Malinov

World War II Infobox

World War II
Location The World
Belligerents
Allied Powers The "Big Four" British Empire United Kingdom Canada Australia New Zealand Newfoundland South Africa India China Nationalists Communists Soviet Union (From 1941) Russian SFSR Ukrainian SSR Byelorussian SSR Uzbek SSR Kazakh SSR Georgian SSR Azerbaijan SSR Lithuanian SSR Moldavian SSR Latvian SSR Kirghiz SSR Tajik SSR Armenian SSR Turkmen SSR Estonian SSR United States (From 1941) Philippines Allies before 1940 Belgium Denmark France Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Allies after 1940 Free France Greece Allies after 1941 Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Republic El Salvador Haiti Honduras Nicaragua Panama Yugoslavia Allies after 1942 Brazil Ethiopia Mexico Guatemala Allies after 1943 Bolivia Colombia Iran Iraq Italy Allies after 1944 Bulgaria Finland Hungary Liberia Romania Allies in 1945 Ecuador Paraguay Peru Uruguay Venezuela Turkey Egypt Syria Lebanon Saudi Arabia Argentina Chile Mongolia	Axis Powers Main Axis Powers Germany Slovakia Bohemia and Moravia Croatia Vichy France (from 1940) Serbia Lokot Autonomy Belarus Italy (From 1943) Albania (from 1943) Hellenic State (from 1943) Italy (Until 1943) Albania Hellenic State Japan Manchukuo Mengjiang China Burma Philippines Azad Hind Vietnam Kampuchea Luang Prabang Other Axis Powers Iraq (1941) Hungary (Until 1944) Romania (Until 1944) Bulgaria (Until 1944) Finland (Until 1944) Thailand
Commanders and leaders
George VI Prime Ministers Neville Chamberlain Winston Churchill Clement Atlee William Lyon Mackenzie King Robert Menzies Arthur Fadden John Curtin Frank Forde Ben Chifley Michael Joseph Savage Peter Fraser Jan Smuts Chiang Kai-shek Mao Zedong Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry Truman	Adolf Hitler Victor Emmanuel III Benito Mussolini Hirohito Prime Ministers Fumimaro Konoe Kiichirō Hiranuma Nobuyuki Abe Mistumasa Yonai Hideki Tōjō Kuniaki Koiso Kantarō Suzuki

Cold War Infobox

Cold War
Location Global
Belligerents
United States Other Western Bloc countries United Kingdom France West Germany South Korea South Vietnam and others...	Soviet Union Other Eastern Bloc countries China Poland East Germany North Korea North Vietnam and others
Commanders and leaders
Harry S. Truman Dwight D. Eisenhower John F. Kennedy X Lyndon B. Johnson Richard Nixon Gerald Ford Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan George H. W. Bush	Joseph Stalin Nikita Krushchev Leonid Brezhnev # Yuri Andropov # Konstantin Chernenko # Mikhail Gorbachev

Second Cold War Infobox

Second Cold War
Location Global
Belligerents
NATO members United States United Kingdom Canada France Germany Poland Denmark Norway Sweden Finland Others Australia Ukraine Israel Taiwan South Korea	CSTO members Russia Belarus Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Serbia Others China Iran North Korea
Commanders and leaders
Donald Trump Charles III Kier Starmer Justin Trudeau Emmanuel Macron Frank-Walter Steinmeier Olaf Scholz Andrzej Duda Donald Tusk Anthony Albanese Volodymyr Zelenskyy Benjamin Netanyahu Lai Ching-te Choi Sang-mok	Vladimir Putin Alexander Lukashenko Xi Jingping Ali Khameini Masoud Pezeshkian Kim Jong Un