Notfallseelsorge

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Emergency pastoral care (also emergency accompaniment ) is psychosocial and pastoral crisis intervention that is primarily provided by the church and foundations. The aid organizations' crisis intervention teams support emergency pastoral care. It is part of the organized psychosocial emergency care (PSNV) . It is designed to advise and support victims, relatives, those involved and helpers in emergencies (accidents, major incidents, etc.) in acute crisis situations. But also help after domestic traumatic events, such as unsuccessful resuscitation, sudden infant death, and suicide, as well as accompanying the police in delivering news of death, is part of the spectrum of emergency pastoral care. Unlike, for example, that By telephone counseling, the emergency chaplains go directly to the scene of the incident. The emergency pastoral care is mostly alerted via the control centers of the rescue services, police or fire brigade. Emergency pastoral care is first aid for the soul and thus a basic component of the church's pastoral care commission.

Rhodesian Air Force

Rhodesian Air Force
Rhodesian Air Force
Active	1935–1980
Disbanded	April 1980
Country	Rhodesia
Allegiance	Southern Rhodesia (1935–53); Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-1963); Southern Rhodesia (1964–65); Rhodesia (1965–79); Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979); United Kingdom (1979–1980);
Part of	Rhodesian Security Forces
Air Headquarters	New Sarum Air Force Base
Motto(s)	Latin: Alæ Præsidio Patriæ (Our wings are the fortress of the country)
March	Winged Assegais
Anniversaries	28 November
Engagements	World War II; Rhodesian Bush War;
Commanders
Air Officers Commanding	See Commanders
Insignia
Identification; symbol	See Insignia

[1]

[2]

The Rhodesian Air Force (RhAF) was an air force based in Salisbury (now Harare) which represented several entities under various names between 1935 and 1980: originally serving the British self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia, it was the air arm of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland between 1953 and 31 December 1963; of Southern Rhodesia once again from 1 January 1964; and of the unrecognised nation of Rhodesia following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain on 11 November 1965.

Named the Royal Rhodesian Air Force (RRAF) from 1954, the "Royal" prefix was dropped in 1970 when Rhodesia declared itself a republic – the official abbreviation changed appropriately. When the internationally recognised country of Zimbabwe came into being in 1980, the RhAF became the Air Force of Zimbabwe.

History

Formed in 1935 under the name Southern Rhodesia Staff Corps Air Unit as a territorial unit, the first regular servicemen with the unit went to Britain for ground crew training in 1936. Its first pilots were awarded their flying wings on 13 May 1938. The reservists were called up early August 1939 and were posted to Kenya by 28 August. On 19 September 1939, two weeks after the United Kingdom declared war against Germany, the Air Unit officially became the Southern Rhodesia Air Force (SRAF), and Air Unit flights become Number 1 Squadron SRAF.

In 1939, the Southern Rhodesia government amalgamated the SRAF with the civilian airline Rhodesia and Nyasaland Airways (RANA). The ex-RANA aircraft formed the Communication Squadron, which operated internal services within Southern Rhodesia, plus services to South Africa and Mozambique. By January 1940, with Britain at war with Germany, Royal Air Force (RAF) Air Vice-Marshal Sir Arthur 'Bomber' Harris was desperate for trained aircrew and turned for help to Southern Rhodesia (where Harris had enlisted in 1914). Harris was frustrated by delays launching Commonwealth Air Training Plan stations in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister Godfrey Huggins (1933–53) recognised an opportunity not just to aid Britain and the Allies, but also to boost the domestic economy. The Rhodesian Air Training Group (RATG) installed aviation infrastructure, trained 10,000 Commonwealth and Allied airmen 1940–45 (seven percent of the total) and provided the stimulus for manufacturing that had been lacking in the 1920s and 1930s. Southern Rhodesia's textile, metallurgy, chemical and food processing industries expanded rapidly.^[1] The SRAF was absorbed into the RAF proper in April 1940 and redesignated No. 237 (Rhodesia) Squadron RAF. This squadron, initially equipped with Hawker Harts, participated in the East African campaign against the Italians.

Dates	Names
1935–1936	Air Section, 1st Battalion Rhodesia Regiment –
1936–1938	Air Section, Southern Rhodesia Defence Force
1938–1939	Southern Rhodesia Air Unit
1939–1940	No. 1 Squadron, Southern Rhodesia Air Force
1940–1947	No. 237 (Rhodesia) Squadron Royal Air Force
1947	Communications Squadron, Southern Rhodesian Staff Corps
1947–1954	Southern Rhodesian Air Force
1954–1970	Royal Rhodesian Air Force
1970–1980	Rhodesian Air Force
1980	Zimbabwe Rhodesia Air Force
1980 – present	Air Force of Zimbabwe

On 1 June 1941, the Southern Rhodesian Women's Auxiliary Air Services came into being. British No. 44 Squadron RAF and No. 266 Squadron RAF were also assigned the name "(Rhodesia)" because of the large number of Rhodesian airmen and crew in these units. Rhodesians fought in many of the theatres of World War II, including future prime minister Ian Smith who, after being shot down over Italy behind enemy lines, was able to avoid capture and return to Allied lines. Rhodesian airmen suffered 20 percent fatalities, becoming emblematic of a "nation in arms" ideal that peppered settler nationalism and erupted fully in the 1960s. The RAF remained until 1954, indirectly assisting Rhodesian aviation, and many airmen returned with young families as settlers.

Post World War II

The SRAF was re-established in 1947 and two years later, Huggins appointed a 32-year-old South African-born Rhodesian Spitfire pilot, Ted Jacklin, as air officer commanding tasked to build an air force in the expectation that British African territories would begin moving towards independence, and air power would be vital for land-locked Southern Rhodesia. The threadbare SRAF bought, borrowed or salvaged a collection of vintage aircraft, including six Tiger Moths, six Harvard trainers, an Anson freighter and a handful of De Havilland Rapide transport aircraft, before purchasing a squadron of 22 Mk22 war surplus Spitfires from the RAF which were then flown to Southern Rhodesia.^[2]^[3]

Huggins was anxious to maintain the strong wartime links established with the RAF, not only for access to training and new technology but also because of his growing concern over the expansionist ideas of the newly established apartheid Afrikaner nationalist regime in South Africa. The booming Rhodesian economy allowed more money to be allocated for new aircraft, training and aerodrome facilities, and growing co-operation with the RAF in the 1950s saw the SRAF operating in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Kenya, Cyprus, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Oman and South Yemen.

Huggins maintained his enthusiasm for air power when he became the first prime minister (1953–56) of the semi-independent Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland also known as the Central African Federation (CAF) comprising Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The CAF was viewed as an experiment, a democratic multiracial alternative to apartheid South Africa, and it was widely expected that the new federal state would become independent within a decade. The SRAF became a 'federal' body and received its first jets, 16 de Havilland Vampire FB9 aircraft. On 15 October 1954 the federal air arm was officially designated as the "Royal Rhodesian Air Force" (RRAF). In a well-received move aimed to distinguish the RRAF from the South African Air Force, khaki uniforms and army ranks were abandoned in favour of those utilised by other Commonwealth air forces such as the RAF, RCAF, RAAF and RNZAF.

In the late 1950s, 16 Canberra B2 and T4 bombers were purchased, as well as Provost T52 trainers, Douglas Dakota and Canadair DC-4M Argonaut transports.

In 1962, Hawker Hunter fighter aircraft were obtained, and the Vampire FB9 and T55s were reallocated to advanced training and ground attack roles.

The first Aérospatiale Alouette III helicopters also arrived around this time, equipping Number 7 Squadron.

Despite efforts to broker a consensus, black and white Rhodesians complained that the pace of reform was too slow or too fast and by 1961, it became clear that the Federation was doomed. Following the dissolution of the CAF in 1963, the British government granted independence to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) but refused Southern Rhodesia independence until more progress was made towards multiracial democracy. White settler opinion hardened and Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front government issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965. Chief of the Air Staff Air Vice Marshal "Raf" Mulock-Bentley was representing Rhodesia in Washington, D.C., and resigned immediately. Bentley's reluctant successor, former Royal Australian Air Force pilot Harold Hawkins had come to Rhodesia with the RATG in 1944 and joined the SRAF in 1947. Hawkins accepted command of the RRAF in the increasingly forlorn hope that the rebellion could be resolved peacefully through negotiation.^[4]

Although Southern Rhodesia acquired the lion's share of the Federation's aircraft, the imposition of international economic sanctions in 1965 saw the country abandoned by many aircraft equipment suppliers and maintenance contractors. RRAF aircraft maintenance crews had stockpiled essential items, but the Air Staff knew that metal fatigue, spare parts shortages and the need for new electronic equipment would begin to erode the RRAF's capabilities. In 1968, Air Vice Marshal Hawkins failed to convince Prime Minister Ian Smith that the 'HMS Fearless' settlement threatened by British Prime Minister Harold Wilson was the best result that Rhodesia could expect. Hawkins resigned his command but accepted the post of Rhodesia's diplomatic representative in Pretoria.

Royal Rhodesian Air Force Alouette III helicopter lifting a short wheelbase Mini Moke in 1962.

When the Rhodesian Bush War intensified after 1972, the age of the aircraft, the shortage of spares and a deteriorating air safety record would become a growing concern for the Air Staff. The abrupt realignment of allies saw Rhodesia increasingly dependent upon South African support. In contrast to the British South Africa Police and the Rhodesian Army, security force airmen possessed skills in demand by other governments and civilian airlines and the RhAF struggled to retain, recruit and instruct technicians.

Insignia

Rhodesian Regiment, Royal Air Force Roundel (1935–1939)^[5]
Southern Rhodesian Air Force Roundel (1939–1954)^[5]
Federation of Rhodesia & Nyasaland Air Force Roundel (1954–1963)^[5]
Royal Rhodesian Air Force Roundel (1963–1970)^[5]
Rhodesian Air Force Roundel (1970–1980)^[5]

Royal Rhodesian Air Force Ensign (1953–1963)
Royal Rhodesian Air Force Ensign (1963–1970)
Rhodesian Air Force Ensign (1970–1979)
Rhodesian Air Force Ensign (1979–1980)

The SRAF used standard RAF type A roundel, with green/yellow/green bars on each side of the fuselage roundel and type A fin flashes.

The RRAF used standard RAF type A roundels with three small assegais in black and white superimposed on the red center and type A fin flashes. These assegais represented the three territories of the Federation, namely Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

The Rhodesian Air Force changed to a type D roundel with a single assegai and a type D fin flash. When Rhodesia became a republic in 1970 the roundel became a green ring with a lion and tusk on a white center.

Aircraft

^[6]

Aerospatiale Alouette II – Six helicopters on loan from the South African Air Force, in service from 1974 to 1980.
Cessna 185 Skywagon – Two civil aircraft impressed into service, about 17 aircraft on loan from the South African Air Force, in service during the 1970s.

Major air bases

New Sarum Air Force Base

In the early days of Rhodesian aviation, the various air units often lodged in buildings and facilities that they inherited. By the 1940s, it became apparent that a more permanent home for aviation was needed near the capital city, Salisbury. The decision was made to build a completely new airfield at Kentucky Farm to provide a base of operations for civilian airlines and military aircraft.

Work started on the military section of the airfield in 1951. In March 1952, the New Air Headquarters and Technical Headquarters were completed at what was called New Sarum Air Force Base. The name derived from Salisbury's sister city in Wiltshire, England, which for centuries had used the name "Sarum". The RAF station near the English Salisbury was called "Old Sarum". It was therefore appropriate in view of both similarities in name and close association with the Royal Air Force that the new airfield be called "New Sarum."

New Sarum is still regarded as the principal Air Force establishment and provides facilities for four squadrons of aircraft of widely differing roles as well as housing training schools for technicians, security personnel, dog handlers, and the Air Force Regiment. The schools and flying squadrons are supported by a full range of services and amenities including workshops, transport fleets, living quarters, equipment depots, and sporting & entertainment facilities. The station shares with Harare International Airport (then-named Salisbury Airport), one of the longest civil airport runways in the world, 4,725 metres (15,502 ft) or 2.93 miles, but is otherwise a totally self-contained community. The military site, complete with housing complex, is to the south of the crossing runways, whereas the international airport is to the north.^[7]

Thornhill Air Force Base

In 1939 a committee was set up to locate and survey three sites in the Gwelo area that were suitable for the establishment of an airfield for the Commonwealth Training Group responsible for training aircrews for the defence of the Empire during World War II. The most suitable site comprised a portion of Thornhill farm and an adjacent farm, Glengarry. This land was commandeered for the duration of the War and finally purchased in 1947. The first buildings were constructed in 1941 and official use and the beginning of training began in March 1942. Some of the original buildings of this time are still in use at Thornhill today.

The town of Gwelo and the air station grew during World War II. A total of 1810 pilots were trained during this time. Many of these men returned after the war to settle in Rhodesia. Some of them formed the nucleus of the military training schemes which led to the formation of the Southern Rhodesian Air Force.

Thornhill is the home to the fighter squadrons, the training squadrons, and the Pilot Training School, where all Officer Cadets spend up to six months on initial training before beginning flying training with the squadrons. Like New Sarum, Thornhill shares its runway and Air Traffic Control facilities with civil aircraft operators. The military air traffic controllers based at Thornhill are responsible for all air traffic control in the Midlands area.^[8]

Forward Airfields (FAFs)

Airfields that served the Operational Areas in which aircraft were able to directly support security forces' operations. FAFs would also accommodate Fire Forces as well.

FAFs:

Grand Reef (Umtali)
Wankie
Mtoko

Rank structure

Officer ranks

Rank group				Senior officers			Junior officers
Royal Rhodesian Air Force (1954–1970)
Royal Rhodesian Air Force (1954–1970)		Air Vice-Marshal	Air Commodore	Group Captain	Wing Commander	Squadron Leader	Flight Lieutenant	Air Lieutenant	Air Sub-Lieutenant
Rhodesian Air Force^[9]^[10] v t e
Rhodesian Air Force^[9]^[10] v t e	Air marshal	Air vice-marshal	Air commodore	Group captain	Wing commander	Squadron leader	Flight lieutenant	Air lieutenant	Air sub-lieutenant

Enlisted ranks

Rank group

Senior NCOs

Junior NCOs

Enlisted

Royal Rhodesian Air Force
(1954–1970)

No insignia

Warrant officer

Warrant officer technician

Flight sergeant

Flight sergeant technician^[b]

Rhodesian Air Force^[9]^[10]


Warrant officer class 2	Master Technician	Master Sergeant

No insignia

Station warrant officer

Warrant officer class 1

Rhodesian Air Force (1970–1980)

During the Rhodesian Bush War, the air force consisted of no more than 2,300 personnel and of those only 150 were pilots. These pilots were qualified to fly all the aircraft within the air force so were often involved in combat missions. In addition, they were rotated through the various units so as to give rest to the airmen who would otherwise be constantly on active service.

In March 1970, when Rhodesia declared itself a republic, the prefix "Royal" was dropped and the Service's name became the "Rhodesian Air Force" (RhAF). A new roundel was adopted in the new Rhodesian colours of green and white containing a lion (in gold) and tusk in the centre of the white. The new air force ensign was taken into use on 5 April 1970. The new flag contained the Rhodesian flag in the canton with the roundel in the fly on a light blue field. This marking was displayed in the usual six positions, together with a green/white/green fin flash with a narrow white stripe as in RAF type C.

During the 1970s bush war, Rhodesia managed to obtain Rheims-Cessna 337 (known in Rhodesia as the Lynx), and SIAI Machetti SF260 (known in Rhodesia as the Genet or Warrior – two versions, trainer and ground-attack) piston-engined aircraft, 11 Augusta Bell 205/UH-1 Iroquois^[11] (originally from Israel, with Lebanese mediation), and additional Aérospatiale Alouette III helicopters.^[12] To the eight bought in 1962–6, 32 more were added between 1968 and 1980 via covert means,^{[citation needed]} but perhaps as many as 27 were South African machines.^{[citation needed]} No jet aircraft could be obtained (except for some Vampires FB9 and T11 aircraft from South Africa). An order for CT/4 trainers was refused by New Zealand.

Drawing upon counter-insurgency experience gained in the Second World War, the Malayan Emergency and the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya,^[13] and adapting more recent Israeli, South African and Portuguese tactics, Rhodesian combined operations (police Special Branch, army, air force) developed 'pseudo-guerrillas', such as the Mozambican National Resistance, (RENAMO) that wreaked havoc across the border, where Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) guerrilla camps were razed by 'Fireforce' cross-border raids.^[14] Fireforce comprised units of Selous Scouts, an undercover tracker battalion of 1,500 troops on double pay, 80 percent black, (many recruited by Special Branch from captured guerrillas facing trial and execution) probing ahead of a parachute infantry battalion of the Rhodesian Light Infantry,^[15]^[16] and up to 200 Special Air Service commandos. These forces were supported, in turn, by armoured transport columns, mobile field artillery, equestrian pursuit dragoons (Grey's Scouts), air force helicopter gunships and bomber squadrons,^[17] one newly equipped with 20 French-made Cessna Lynx low-altitude surveillance aircraft modified for precision ground attacks. Fireforce gathered intelligence, disrupted guerrilla forces, seized equipment and is identified frequently as a precursor of new forms of counterinsurgency warfare. The United Nations condemned the Fireforce raids.^[18]

For ground defence, the Rhodesian Air Force had their own armoured car unit equipped with Eland 60s armed with 60 mm breech loading mortars.

Flying squadrons

No. 1 Squadron – Thornhill (12 x Hawker Hunter FGA.9)
No. 2 Squadron – Thornhill (8 x Vampire FB.9; 8 x Vampire T.55; plus 13 x Vampire FB.52 on loan from South Africa)
No. 3 Squadron – New Sarum (13 x Douglas C-47; 1 x Cessna 402; 6 x BN-2A Islander; 1 x DC-7C; 1 x Baron)
No. 4 Squadron – Thornhill (11 x AL-60F5 Trojan; 21 x Reims-Cessna FTB.337G; 14 x SF.260W)
No. 5 Squadron – New Sarum (8 x EE Canberra B.2; 2 x EE Canberra T.4)
No. 6 Squadron – Thornhill (13 x Percival Provost T.52; 17 x SF.260C)
No. 7 Squadron – New Sarum (6 x Alouette II; 34 x Alouette III)
No. 8 Squadron – New Sarum (11 x AB.205)

Air Force of Zimbabwe (1980–present)

In June 1979, the short-lived Zimbabwe-Rhodesia government of Bishop Muzorewa was installed and the air force flag was the only military flag to be changed to coincide with the change in the national flag. The roundel remained the same.

In the last year of the Rhodesian War and the first few years of Zimbabwe's independence, no national insignia of any sort were carried on Air Force aircraft. This was legal as long as the aircraft did not fly outside of the country's borders.

Following the independence of Zimbabwe in April 1980, the air force was renamed the Air Force of Zimbabwe, but continued to use the emblem of a bateleur eagle in flight, as used by the Rhodesians. The new air force flag retains the light blue field and has the Zimbabwe flag in the canton with the air force emblem in gold in the fly.

In 1982, a new marking was introduced, featuring a yellow Zimbabwe Bird sitting on the walls of Great Zimbabwe. This marking was displayed on the fin of the aircraft or on the fuselage of helicopters. No wing markings were displayed.

In 1994, a new roundel was introduced, featuring the national colours in concentric rings. Initially, the roundel was used in association with the 'Zimbabwe Bird' tail marking used previously, but this was soon replaced by the national flag. The main marking is normally displayed above and below each wing and on each side of the fuselage. However, this seems to be changed, and today the Zimbabwe Bird is also used as a fin flash.

Notes

^ The official name of the colony remained 'Southern Rhodesia' from the dissolution of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1964 to the uni-lateral declaration of independence of (Southern) Rhodesia in 1965. The colony's name was conferred upon her by the UK's Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order 1923. The colony uni-laterally re-named herself as 'Rhodesia' after Northern Rhodesia's independence in October, 1964 through legislation by the colonial legislature; the legislation, however, had never received royal assent. This act was considered by London as ultra vires the (Southern) Rhodesian government
^ At some point the rank insignia was produced with the crown appearing beneath the chevrons.

References

^ On Rhodesian industrialisation, Phimister (1988)
^ Moss n.d.
^ Petter-Bowyer 2003, p. 16.
^ The extent to which Hawkins was involved in the abortive Army plot to arrest Ian Smith, senior members of the Rhodesian Front regime and their principal supporter in the security forces, Police Commissioner Frank Barfoot, has yet to be clarified. See Flower (1987), p. 56; Wood (2005), p. 471
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Zimbabwe Air Force National Markings". aeroflight.co.uk. Archived from the original on 10 May 2006.
^ Brent 1987, pp. 13–23.
^ Brent 1987, p. 25.
^ Brent 1987, p. 26.
^ ^a ^b Bridger, Peter, ed. (1973). Encyclopaedia Rhodesia. Salisbury. pp. 441–444. Retrieved 5 July 2022.
^ ^a ^b Brent, W. A. (1988). Rhodesian Air Force – A Brief History 1947–1980. Freeworld Publications. p. 35.
^ Brent 1987, pp. 14.
^ Rogers 1998, p. 41.
^ Martinez 2002, p. 1161.
^ Martinez 2002, p. 1160–1161.
^ Cline 2005, p. 25.
^ Martinez 2002, p. 1162.
^ Geldenhuys 2007.
^ See, for example, Cilliers (1984); Carver (1993); Wood (1996); Parker (2006)

Bibliography

Brent, W. A. (1987). Rhodesian Air Force: A Brief History 1947–1980. Kwambonambi: Freeworld Publications. ISBN 978-0-620-11805-7.
Carver, R. (1993). "Zimbabwe: Drawing a Line through the Past". Journal of African Law. 31 (1): 69–81.
Cilliers, Jakkie K. (1984). "Pseudo Operations and the Selous Scouts". Counter-Insurgency in Rhodesia (RLE: Terrorism and Insurgency). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315713854. ISBN 9781315713854.
Cline, Lawrence E. (2005). "Pseudo Operations and Counterinsurgency: Lessons from Other Countries" (PDF). Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College.
Flower, Ken (1987). Serving Secretly - An Intelligence Chief on Record: Rhodesia into Zimbabwe 1964 to 1981. London: John Murray Publishers. ISBN 978-0719544385.
Geldenhuys, Preller (2007). Rhodesian Air Force Operations with Air Strike Log. Durban, South Africa: Just Done Productions Publishing (published 13 July 2007). ISBN 978-1-920169-61-9. Archived from the original on 24 December 2014.
Martinez, Ian (December 2002). "The History and Use of Bacteriological and Chemical Agents During Zimbabwe's Liberation War 1965–80 by Rhodesian Forces". Third World Quarterly. 23 (6): 1159–1179. doi:10.1080/0143659022000036595. ISSN 0143-6597. JSTOR 3993569. S2CID 145729695.
Moss, J. P. (n.d.). Spit Epic: March 1951, (unpublished manuscript){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
Parker, J. (2006). Assignment Selous Scouts: Inside Story of a Rhodesian Special Branch Officer. Alberton: Galago.
Petter-Bowyer, P. J. H. (2003). Winds of Destruction: The Autobiography of a Rhodesian Combat Pilot. Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford Publishing.
Phimister, I. R. (1988). An Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe 1890–1948: Capital Accumulation and Class Struggle. London: Longman.
Rogers, Anthony (1998). Someone Else's War: Mercenaries from 1960 to the Present. Hammersmith: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-00-472077-7.
Wood, J. R. T. (1996). "Fireforce: Helicopter Warfare in Rhodesia 1962–1980". J.R.T. Wood.
Wood, J. R. T. (June 2005). So Far and No Further! Rhodesia's Bid for Independence During the Retreat From Empire 1959–1965. Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4120-4952-8.

External links

Air Force of Zimbabwe
Rhodesian Air Force and Rhodesian civil aircraft photographs and info
The Rhodesian Air Force
Rhodesian and South African Military History: An extensive collection of histories and analysis of Rhodesian and South African military operations, to the early 1980s
Rhodesian Air Force Sods photos and videos

Imperial cossack ranks

Rank group	General / flag officers										Senior officers						Junior officers
Cossacks of the Imperial Russian Army (1884–1917) v t e
Cossacks of the Imperial Russian Army (1884–1917) v t e					Генерал рода войск General roda voysk		Генера́л-лейтена́нт General-leytenant		Генера́л-майо́р General-mayor		Казачий полковник Kazachiy polkovnik		Войсковой старшина Voyskovoy starshina		Есаул Yesaul		Подъесаул Podyesaul		Сотник Sotnik		Хорунжий Khorunzhyi		Прапорщик по казачьей части Praporschik po kazach'yey chasti

Rank group	Senior NCOs																						Junior NCOs						Enlisted
Cossacks of the Imperial Russian Army (1884–1917) v t e
Cossacks of the Imperial Russian Army (1884–1917) v t e							Подхорунжий Podhorunzhiy		Bахмистр Vakhmistr		Старший урядник Starshiy uryadnik						Младший урядник Mladshiy uryadnik						Приказный Prikaznyi				Казак Kazak

Hokkaido

The Colonisation of Hokkaidō was the process from around the fifteenth century by which Japan took control of Hokkaidō.

Ainu people, by Murase Yoshinori [ja], 1918

Background

Kamakura period

From around the 13th century an identifiable Ainu culture developed and replaced the previous Satsumon and Okhotsk cultures in Hokkaidō.^[1]^[2] It was also during this period that economic contact between the Wajin of Honshu and Ainu of Hokkaidō began.^[1] The Wajin viewed the the Ainu as "barbarians",^[3] with the contemporaneous Japanese name for the island of Hokkaidō, Ezochi, meaning either "land of the barbarians" or "the land for people who did not obey the government."^[4]

By the fifteenth century Wajin trading settlements had been established around the Oshima peninsula in southern Hokkaidō.^[5] Fighting between the Ainu and Wajin began in 1456, leading to the destruction of many of the trading settlements.^[6] Through the sixteenth century the Wajin engaged in a campaign of inviting Ainu leaders and elders to peace talks, at which the Ainu were ambushed and killed.^[6] During this time the Kakizaki family took a leading role in the Wajin settlers on southern Hokkaidō, establishing a monopoly of trade with the Ainu.^[6]

Edo period

In 1599 the Kakizaki family took the name Matsumae.^[6] In 1635, Matsumae Kinhiro, the second daimyō of the Matsumae Domain in Hokkaidō, sent Satō Kamoemon and Kakizaki Kuroudo on an expedition to Sakhalin. One of the Matsumae explorers, Kodō Shōzaemon, stayed in the island in the winter of 1636 and sailed along the east coast to Taraika (now Poronaysk) in the spring of 1637.^[7] The Tokugawa bakufu (feudal government) granted the Matsumae clan exclusive rights to trade with the Ainu in the northern part of the island. Later, the Matsumae began to lease out trading rights to Japanese merchants, and contact between Japanese and Ainu became more extensive. Throughout this period, Ainu groups competed with each other to import goods from the Japanese, and epidemic diseases such as smallpox reduced the population.^[8]^[9] From 1669 to 1672 Ainu chieftain Shakushain led a rebellion against the Matsumae clan.^[10]^[11] The rebellion began as a fight for resources between Shakushain's people and a rival Ainu clan in the Shibuchari River basin, ending up as a a war between the Matsumae and an Ainu led coalition seeking to regain direct trading rights with Honshu.^[10] Brett Walker highlights the rebellion as a watershed moment in the history of the Japanese conquest of Hokkaidō,^[12] as it solidified the future involvement of Japanese state powers in colonising Hokkaidō instead of it being left to the local Matsumae clan.^[12]

In an early colonisation attempt, a Japanese settlement was established at Ōtomari on Sakhalin's southern end in 1679.^[13]

In the 1780s, the influence of the Japanese Tokugawa Shogunate on the Ainu of southern Sakhalin increased significantly.^[14] By the beginning of the 19th century, the Japanese economic zone extended midway up the east coast, to Taraika.^[15] With the exception of the Nayoro Ainu located on the west coast in close proximity to China, most Ainu stopped paying tribute to the Qing dynasty. The Matsumae clan was nominally in charge of Sakhalin, but they neither protected nor governed the Ainu there.^[16] Instead they extorted the Ainu for Chinese silk, which they sold in Honshu as Matsumae's special product. To obtain Chinese silk, the Ainu fell into debt, owing much fur to the Santan (Ulch people), who lived near the Qing office. The Ainu also sold the silk uniforms (mangpao, bufu, and chaofu) given to them by the Qing, which made up the majority of what the Japanese knew as nishiki and jittoku. As dynastic uniforms, the silk was of considerably higher quality than that traded at Nagasaki, and enhanced Matsumae prestige as exotic items.^[17] Eventually the Tokugawa government, realising that they could not depend on the Matsumae, took control of Sakhalin in 1807.^[18]

Mogami's interest in the Sakhalin trade intensified when he learned that Yaenkoroaino, the above-mentioned elder from Nayoro, possessed a memorandum written in Manchurian, which stated that the Ainu elder was an official of the Qing state. Later surveys on Sakhalin by shogunal officials such as Takahashi Jidayú and Nakamura Koichiró only confirmed earlier observations: Sakhalin and Sóya Ainu traded foreign goods at trading posts, and because of the pressure to meet quotas, they fell into debt. These goods, the officials confirmed, originated at Qing posts, where continental traders acquired them during tributary ceremonies. The information contained in these types of reports turned out to be a serious blow to the future of Matsumae's trade monopoly in Ezo.^[19]
— Brett L. Walker

In 1789 a further Ainu rebellion occurred on the Shiretoko Peninsula in Northeastern Hokkaidō.^[20]^[21]

From 1799 to 1806, the Tokugawa shogunate took direct control of southern Hokkaidō. Japan proclaimed sovereignty over Sakhalin in 1807, and in 1809 Mamiya Rinzō claimed that it was an island.^[22] During this period, Ainu women were separated from their husbands and either subjected to rape or forcibly married to Japanese men. Meanwhile, Ainu men were deported to merchant subcontractors for five- and ten-year terms of service. Policies of family separation and assimilation, combined with the impact of smallpox, caused the Ainu population to drop significantly in the early 19th century.^[23] In the 18th century, there were 80,000 Ainu,^[24]^{[page needed]} but by 1868, there were only about 15,000 Ainu in Hokkaidō, 2,000 in Sakhalin, and around 100 in the Kuril Islands.^[25]

Despite their growing influence in the area in the early 19th century as a result of these policies, the Tokugawa shogunate was unable to gain a monopoly on Ainu trade with those on the Asian mainland, even by the year 1853. Santan traders, a group composed mostly of the Ulchi, Nanai, and Oroch peoples of the Amur River, commonly interacted with the Ainu people independent of the Japanese government, especially in the northern part of Hokkaidō.^[26] In addition to their trading ventures, Santan traders sometimes kidnapped or purchased Ainu women from Rishiri to become their wives. This further escalated Japan's presence in the area, as the Tokugawa shogunate believed a monopoly on the Santan trade would better protect the Ainu people.^[26]^[27]

Meiji period

Shortly after the Boshin War in 1868, a group of Tokugawa loyalists led by Enomoto Takeaki temporarily occupied the island (the polity is commonly but mistakenly known as the Republic of Ezo), but the rebellion was defeated in May 1869. Through colonial practices, Ezochi was annexed into Japanese territory.^[28] Ezochi was subsequently put under control of Hakodate prefectural government.

Development commission

In 1869 the the Development Commission (開拓使, Kaitakushi) was established by the Meiji government, with the goal of encouraging Japanese settlers to Hokkaido.^[29]^[30]^[31] Mainland Japanese settlers began migrating to Hokkaido, leading to Japan's colonisation of the island.^[32] Motivated by capitalist and industrial goals, the Meiji government forcefully appropriated fertile land and mineral-rich regions throughout Hokkaido, without consideration for their historical Ainu inhabitancy.^[32] The Meiji government implemented land seizures and enacted land ownership laws that favored Japanese settlers, effectively stripping Ainu people of their customary land rights and traditional means of subsistence.^[32]

After 1869, the northern Japanese island was known as Hokkaidō, which can be translated to "northern sea route,"^[33] and regional subdivisions were established, including the provinces of Oshima, Shiribeshi, Iburi, Ishikari, Teshio, Kitami, Hidaka, Tokachi, Kushiro, Nemuro and Chishima.^[34]

The initiative to colonise Hokkaido, traces back to 1869, where Japanese proponents argued that the colonisation of Ezo would serve as a strategic move to enhance Japan's standing and influence on the global stage, particularly in negotiations with Western powers, specifically the Russian Empire.^[35] The Meiji government invested heavily in colonising Hokkaido for several reasons.^[36] Firstly, they aimed to assert their control over the region as a buffer against potential Russian advances.^[36] Secondly, they were attracted to Hokkaido's rich natural resources, including coal, timber, fish, and fertile land.^[36] Lastly, since Western powers viewed colonial expansion as a symbol of prestige, Japan viewed the colonisation of Hokkaido as an opportunity to present itself as a modern and respected nation to Western powers.^[36] Researcher Katarina Sjöberg quotes Baba's 1890 account of the Japanese government's reasoning:

... The development of Japan's large northern island had several objectives: First, it was seen as a means to defend Japan from a rapidly developing and expansionist Russia. Second ... it offered a solution to the unemployment for the former samurai class ... Finally, development promised to yield the needed natural resources for a growing capitalist economy.^[37]^{[page needed]}

The Japanese failed to settle in the interior lowlands of the island because of Ainu resistance.^[38] The resistance was eventually destroyed, and the lowlands were under the control of the commission. The most important goal of the Japanese was to increase the farm population and to create a conducive environment for emigration and settlement.^[39] However, the Japanese did not have expertise in modern agricultural techniques, and only possessed primitive mining and lumbering methods.^[39] Thus Japan looked to American experts and technology to aid in the settler-colonisation of Hokkaido.^[40] From the 1870s to the 1880s, Japanese leaders placed their efforts on settling Hokkaido by systematically migrating former samurai lords, samurai retainers, and common citizens, which included farmers and peasants, providing them with "free" land and financial assistance.^[40] This transformation was facilitated with the expertise of American advisors who introduced various colonisation technologies, transforming Hokkaido into land suitable for Japan's capitalist aspirations.^[41]

Japanese leaders and colonial officials drew inspiration from American settler-colonialism during their diplomatic visits to the United States.^[36] This included declaring large portions of Hokkaido as ownerless land, providing a pretext for the dispossession of the Ainu people.^[36]^[32]

Kuroda Kiyotaka was put in charge of the project of colonisation,^[39] travelling to the United States to recruit Horace Capron, President Ulysses S. Grant's commissioner of agriculture. From 1871 to 1873 Capron bent his efforts to expounding Western agriculture and mining, with mixed results. Frustrated with obstacles to his efforts, Capron returned home in 1875.^{[citation needed]} As a result of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875), the Kuril Islands—along with their Ainu inhabitants—came under Japanese administration.^[42]^[43] In 1876, William S. Clark arrived to found an agricultural college in Sapporo. Although he only remained a year, Clark left a lasting impression on Hokkaidō, inspiring the Japanese with his teachings on agriculture as well as Christianity.^[44] His parting words, "Boys, be ambitious!", can be found on public buildings in Hokkaidō to this day. The population of Hokkaidō increased from 58,000 to 240,000 during that decade.^[45]

Kuroda hired Capron for $10,000 per year and paid for all expenses related to the mission. Kuroda and his government were likely intrigued by Capron's previous colonial experience, particularly his involvement in the forced removal of Native Americans from Texas to new territories after the Mexican–American War.^[46] Capron introduced capital-intensive farming techniques by adopting American methods and tools, importing seeds for Western crops, and bringing in European livestock breeds, which included his favorite North Devon cattle.^[40] He founded experimental farms in Hokkaido, conducted surveys to assess mineral deposits and agricultural potential, and advocated for improvements in water access, mills, and roads.^[40]

Assimilation

The 1899 Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act further marginalised and impoverished the Ainu people by forcing them to leave their traditional lands and relocating them to the rugged, mountainous regions in the center of the island.^[47]^[48]^[49]^{[page needed]} The act prohibited the Ainu from fishing and hunting,^[50] which were their main source of subsistence.^[51] With the designation of "former aborigines", with the idea that they would assimilate. The Ainu were valued primarily as a source of inexpensive manual labor, and discriminatory assimilation policies further entrenched their sense of inferiority as well as worsened poverty and disease within Ainu communities.^[52] These policies exacerbated diasporic trends among the Ainu population, as many sought employment with the government or private enterprises, often earning meager wages that barely sustained their families.^[32]

The Meiji government embarked on assimilation campaigns aimed not only at assimilating the Ainu but also eradicating their language and culture entirely.^[32] They were forced to take on Japanese names and language, and gradually saw their culture and traditions eroded.^[47] The Ainu were forbidden to speak their own language and taught only Japanese at school.^[29] Facing pervasive stigma, many Ainu concealed their heritage.^[47] Given the Meiji state's full political control over the island, the subsequent subjugation of its indigenous inhabitants, aggressive economic exploitation, and ambitious permanent settlement endeavors, Hokkaido emerged as the sole successful settler colony of Japan.^{[citation needed]}

After the Meiji colonisation of Hokkaido, Meiji Japan depended on prison labour to accelerate the colonisation process.^[53] The Japanese built three prisons and rendered Hokkaido a prison island, where political prisoners were incarcerated and used as prison labour.^[53] During the opening ceremony of the first prison, the Ainu name "Shibetsuputo" was replaced with the Japanese name "Tsukigata," as an attempt to "Japanise" Hokkaido's geography.^[53] The second prison opened near the Hokutan Horonai coal mine, where Ainu people were forced to work.^[53] Cheap prison labour played an important role in coal and sulphur mining, as well as road construction in Hokkaido.^[53] Eventually, several types of indentured labour, Korean labour, child labour and women labour replaced convict labour in Hokkaido.^[53] Working conditions were difficult and dangerous.^[53] Japan's transition to capitalism depended heavily on the growth of the coal mining sector in Hokkaidō.^[53] The importance of coal from Hokkaidō increased throughout the First World War, and the mines required a large amount of labourers.^[53]

Negative impacts on the Ainu

A photograph of Tatsujiro Kuzuno [ja], an Ainu individual famous for being a promoter of Ainu culture

In a 2009 news story, Japan Today reported through the history of colonisation "many Ainu were forced to work, essentially as slaves, for Wajin (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox, measles, cholera and tuberculosis into their communities."^[9] The Japanese government also "banned the Ainu language, took Ainu lands away, and prohibited the Ainu from engaging in salmon fishing and deer hunting."^[9] Historian Roy Thomas wrote that the "ill treatment of native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst, leads to genocide. Japan's native people, the Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel hoax, because the Japanese have refused to accept them officially as a separate minority people."^[54]

UNESCO has recognised the Ainu language as critically endangered.^[55]

Lewallan wrote in 2016 that the Japanese colonisation of lands inhabited by the Ainu had "genocidal consequences" for the Ainu.^[56] Esther Brito Ruiz has detailed how the assimilationist policies of the Japanese from the 19th century resulted in a cultural genocide of the Ainu.^[57]^{[page needed]}

Japanese colonisation of Hokkaido

The Ainu are an indigenous people in Japan (Hokkaidō).^[58] In 2004, the small Ainu community which lives in Russia wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to recognize Japanese mistreatment of the Ainu people as a genocide, something which Putin declined to do.^[59]

In 1869, after the Battle of Hakodate during the Boshin War, the new Meiji government renamed the Republic of Ezo Hokkaido, whose boundaries were formed by former members of the Tokugawa shogunate, and together with lands where the Ainu lived, they were unilaterally incorporated into Japan.^[9]

Colonization of Hokkaido

Japanese colonization

Japanese annexation of Hokkaido

The Ainu went from being a relatively isolated group of people to having their land, language, religion, and customs assimilated into those of the Japanese.^[58] Their land was distributed to the Yamato Japanese settlers to create and maintain farms in the model of Western industrial agriculture. It was known as "colonisation" (拓殖, takushoku) at the time, but later by the euphemism, "opening up undeveloped land" (開拓 [jp]).^[60] Additionally, factories like flour mills and beer breweries, along with mining practices, resulted in the creation of infrastructure such as roads and railway lines during a development period that lasted until 1904.^[61] During this time, the Ainu were ordered to cease religious practices such as animal sacrifice and the custom of tattooing.^[62] The same act applied to the native Ainu on Sakhalin after its annexation as Karafuto Prefecture.^[63]

References

^ ^a ^b Siddle 2008, pp. 22–23.
^ Komai 2022, p. 146.
^ Siddle 2008, p. 23.
^ Siripala 2020, pp. 36–37.
^ Siddle 2008, pp. 23–24.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Siddle 2008, p. 24.
^ Toshiyuki 1994, p. 34.
^ Walker 2001, pp. 49–56, 61–71, 172–176.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Sharp 2009.
^ ^a ^b Siddle 2008, p. 25.
^ Walker 2001, pp. 49–50.
^ ^a ^b Walker 2001, p. 71.
^ "Time Table of Sakhalin Island". Secret of Sakhalin Island (Karafuto). Archived from the original on 3 October 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2015.
^ Walker 2001, pp. 143–144.
^ Walker 2001, p. 141.
^ Walker 2001, pp. 142–144.
^ Walker 2001, pp. 134–136.
^ Sasaki 1999, p. 88.
^ Walker 2001, pp. 149–150.
^ Walker 2001, pp. 172–176.
^ Shinichirō & Harrison 1960, pp. 30–47.
^ Lower 1978, p. 75.
^ Lewallen 2016, pp. 131–142.
^ Shelton 2005.
^ Howell 1997, p. 614.
^ ^a ^b Morris-Suzuki 2020, p. 2.
^ Rinzō 1955, p. 107: "The name 'Yaepikarainu' is my approximation based the Manchu version of his name, which was given as 'Yabirinu', and the Japanese version which was given as 'Yaepikaran', and the Ainu honorific naming convention of adding '-ainu' to the end of the names of elders."
^
- Siripala 2020, pp. 36–37
- Jolliffe 2020
- "Recent History of the Ainu" (PDF). The Culture and Recent History of the Ainu. Hokkaido Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2025. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
- "How the Sharing of Ainu Culture Became One Man's Lifework". Hokkaido Love! - Hokkaido Official Tourism Site. 15 July 2023. Archived from the original on 15 February 2025.
^ ^a ^b Onishi 2008.
^ "Kaitakushi" 開拓使 [Development Commission]. Kokushi Daijiten (in Japanese). Yoshikawa Kōbunkan 吉川弘文館. 1979–1997.
^ Siddle 2008, p. 28.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Mason 2012, pp. 7–9.
^ Nussbaum 2005, p. 343.
^ Satow 1882, p. 33.
^ Mason 2012, pp. 14–15.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Hennessey 2018, p. 3.
^ Sjöberg 1993.
^ Harrison 1951, pp. 136–137.
^ ^a ^b ^c Harrison 1951, p. 136.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Hirano 2023a, p. 142.
^ Hirano 2023a, pp. 138–139, 142.
^ March 1996, p. 90.
^ Chapman 2001, p. 115.
^ McDougall 1993, pp. 355–356.
^ McDougall 1993, p. 357.
^ Hirano 2023a, pp. 140–141.
^ ^a ^b ^c Cobb 2020.
^ Siripala 2020, p. 37.
^ Loos & Osani 1993.
^ Komai 2021, p. 148: "This status de facto materialized into the Hokkaido Former Natives Protection Act (FNPA) of 1899, which aimed at "protecting the dying race" (Siddle 2002), mandating the replacement of hunting and gathering practices with agriculture (Howell, 1994; Lewallen 2016)."
^ Siripala 2020, pp. 36–38.
^ Siripala 2020, p. 38.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Jolliffe 2020.
^ Thomas 1989, p. 227.
^ "Ainu in Japan". Minority Rights Group. Archived from the original on 17 February 2025. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
^ Lewallan 2016, p. 18.
^ Ruiz 2024.
^ ^a ^b Fogarty 2008.
^ Yampolski 2004.
^ Siddle 1996, p. 51.
^ Sjöberg 1993, p. 117.
^ Levinson 2002, p. 72.
^ Yamada 2010, pp. 59–75.

Works cited

Chapman, Tim (2001). Imperial Russia, 1801–1905. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23109-4.
Cobb, Ellie (20 May 2020). "Japan's forgotten indigenous people". BBC Travel. BBC. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
Fogarty, Philippa (6 June 2008). "Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu". BBC News. Archived from the original on 27 June 2024. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
Harrison, John A. (1951). "The Capron Mission and the Colonization of Hokkaido, 1868-1875". Agricultural History. 25 (3): 135–142. JSTOR 3740831.
Hennessey, John L. (2018). "Engineering Japanese Settler Colonialism in Hokkaido: A Postcolonial Reevaluation of William Wheeler's Work for the Kaitakushi" (PDF). Asia in Focus. 6 (6): 2–13.
Hirano, Katsuya (2023a). "Settler-Colonialism, Ecology, and Expropriation of Ainu Mosir: A Transnational Perspective". In Beattie, James; Jones, Ryan Tucker; Melillo, Edward Dallam (eds.). Migrant Ecologies: Environmental Histories of the Pacific World. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0824892258.
Howell, David L. (1997). "The Meiji State and the Logic of Ainu 'Protection'". In Hardacre, Helen (ed.). New Directions in the Study of Meiji Japan. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 612–634. doi:10.1163/9789004644847_049. ISBN 978-9-00410-735-9.
Jolliffe, Pia M. (15 October 2020). "Forced Labour in Imperial Japan's First Colony: Hokkaidō". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 18 (20).
Komai, Eléonore (7 July 2021). "The Ainu and Indigenous Politics in Japan: Negotiating Agency, Institutional Stability, and Change". Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics. 7 (1): 141–164. doi:10.1017/rep.2021.16.
Levinson, David (2002). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Vol. 1. Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-684-80617-4.
Lewallen, Ann-Elise (2016). The Fabric of Indigeneity: Ainu Identity, Gender, and Settler Colonialism in Japan. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-5736-6.
Loos, Noel; Osani, Takeshi, eds. (1993). Indigenous Minorities and Education: Australian and Japanese Perspectives on their Indigenous Peoples, the Ainu, Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. Tokyo: Sanyusha Publishing Co., Ltd. ISBN 978-4-88322-597-2.
Lower, Arthur (1978). Ocean of Destiny: A concise History of the North Pacific, 1500–1978. University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 9780774843522.
March, G. Patrick (1996). Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 0-275-95566-4.
Mason, Michele M. (2012). Dominant Narratives of Colonial Hokkaido and Imperial Japan: Envisioning the Periphery and the Modern Nation-State (PDF). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137330888. ISBN 978-1-137-33088-8.
McDougall, Walter A. (1993). Let the Sea Make a Noise: A History of the North Pacific from Magellen to Macarthur. Perennial. ISBN 978-0060578206.
Morris-Suzuki, Tessa (15 November 2020). "Indigenous Diplomacy: Sakhalin Ainu (Enchiw) in the Shaping of Modern East Asia (Part 1: Traders and Travellers)" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 18 (22): 1–20.
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric (2005). "Hokkaidō". Japan Encyclopedia.
Onishi, Norimitsu (3 July 2008). "Recognition for a People Who Faded as Japan Grew". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 April 2024. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
Rinzō, Mamiya (1955). "Kita Ezo Zutsetsu or a Description of the Island of North Ezo by Mamiya Rinzō". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 99 (2). Translated by Harrison, John: 93‒117.
Ruiz, Esther Brito (2024). "Assimilation and Dispossession: Cultural Genocide of the Ainu". In Bachman, Jeffrey S.; Ruiz, Esther Brito (eds.). A Modern History of Forgotten Genocides and Mass Atrocities. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003365754_02. ISBN 978-1003365754.
Satow, Ernest (1882). "The Geography of Japan". Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan. 1–2.
Sharp, Andy (1 March 2009). "Tokyo's thriving Ainu community keeps traditional culture alive". Japan Today. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
Shelton, Dinah (2005). Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. Vol. 2. Macmillan Reference.
Shinichirō, Takakura; Harrison, John A. (1960). "The Ainu of Northern Japan: A Study in Conquest and Acculturation". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 50 (4). University of Pennsylvania Press: 1–88. doi:10.2307/1005795. JSTOR 1005795.
Siripala, Thisanka (2020). "Far-Right Politics and Indigenous Ainu Activism in Japan" (PDF). Georgetown Journal of Asian Affairs. 6: 36–44.
Sjöberg, Katarina (1993). The Return of the Ainu: Cultural Mobilization and the Practice of Ethnicity in Japan. Studies in Anthropology and History. Vol. 9. Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers. doi:10.4324/9781315077130. ISBN 978-3-71865-401-7.
Thomas, Roy (1989). Japan: The Blighted Blossom. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-125-1. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
Toshiyuki, Akizuki (1994). Nich-Ro kankei to Saharintō : Bakumatsu Meiji shonen no ryōdo mondai 日露関係とサハリン島：幕末明治初年の領土問題 [Japanese–Russian Relations and Sakhalin Island: Territorial Dispute in the Bakumatsu and First Meiji Years]. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo Publishers Ltd. ISBN 4480856684.
Walker, Brett L. (2001). The Conquest of Ainu Lands: Ecology and Culture in Japanese Expansion, 1590–1800. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520248342.
Yamada, Yoshiko (2010). "A Preliminary Study of Language Contact around Uilta in Sakhalin". Journal of the Center for Northern Humanities. 3: 59–75. hdl:2115/42939.
Yampolski, Vladimir (8 December 2004). "Tragediya Aynov – Tragediya Rossiyskogo dal'nego vostoka" Трагедия Айнов – Трагедия Российского дальнего востока [The tragedy of the Ainu – The tragedy of the Russian Far East] (in Russian). kamtime.ru. Archived from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2016.

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Rhodesian Air Force

History

Post World War II

Insignia

Aircraft

Major air bases

New Sarum Air Force Base

Thornhill Air Force Base

Forward Airfields (FAFs)

Rank structure

Rhodesian Air Force (1970–1980)

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Air Force of Zimbabwe (1980–present)

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Imperial cossack ranks

Hokkaido

Background

Kamakura period

Edo period

Meiji period

Development commission

Assimilation

Negative impacts on the Ainu

Japanese colonisation of Hokkaido

Colonization of Hokkaido

Japanese colonization

Japanese annexation of Hokkaido

References

Works cited

Further reading

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