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Albinism in Ghana

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A child with albinism
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Persecution of people with albinism (sometimes abbreviated PWA[1]) is based on the belief that certain body parts of albinistic people can transmit magical powers. Such superstition is present especially in some parts of the African Great Lakes region, it has been promulgated and exploited by witch doctors and others who use such body parts as ingredients in rituals, concoctions and potions with the claim that their magic will bring prosperity to the user (muti or medicine murder)[2]

As a result, people with albinism have been persecuted, killed and dismembered, and graves of albinos dug up and desecrated. At the same time, people with albinism have also been ostracised and even killed for exactly the opposite reason, because they are presumed to be cursed and bring bad luck. The persecutions of people with albinism take place mostly in Sub-Saharan African communities, especially among East Africans.[3]: 81 

What is Albinism

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Albinism is a genetically inherited condition which is very rare and, worldwide, affects approximately one in twenty thousand people[4] Although rare in the western world, albinism is quite common in sub-Saharan Africa, likely as a result of consanguinity.[3] Both parents, who may or may not be albinos themselves, must carry the gene if it is to be passed on to the child. Albinism occurs in both males and females and is not specific to any race or ethnic group. Statistics show that fifty percent of albinistic people in Tanzania have a known albinistic relative,[3]: 80  although very few understand or are educated about the medical and genetic causes of this condition. Many believe it is a punishment from God or bad luck, and that their "disease" could be contagious, which is often the view of even members of the medical and professional community. These misconceptions, coupled with the lack of education, are some of the key reasons that albinism is so heavily persecuted. This lack of knowledge about people with albinism means that folktales and superstition in the name of witchcraft take the place of medical and scientific facts in the minds of many native Africans, with and without albinism, which in turn has major effects on the social integration of albinistic people into African society. Ninety-eight percent of albinos die by the age of forty for reasons which could easily be prevented.[5]


Types of Albinism

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Oculocutaneous albinism (OCA), This is the most common type of Albinism that is inherited from two mutated genes-both parents. It is a type of albinism that decreases pigmentation of the skin, hair, and eyes and also causes vision problems. There are also types of OCA that varies from OCA1 to OCA7.[6]

Ocular Albinism, This type of Albinism is limited to only the eyes. It is inherited by a gene mutated on the X chromosome. This is usually passed on by the mother and occurs exclusively in males. It is a less common type compared to OCA. [7] People with Ocular Albinism have blue eyes however their blood vessel may show through the iris making their eyes look red or pink [8]

Albinism related to rare hereditary syndromes, An example of such syndromes is the Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome. It is a rare type that is due to defect of one of eight genes. Its symptoms are similar to that of OCA. It occurs with bowel, lungs and bleeding disorders. [9]

Treatment

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Albinism has no cure. This is because it is a genetic disorder. The best thing that can be done is getting proper eye care and monitoring skin for signs of abnormalities [10]. Tinted glasses may be used to reduce photophobia[11]. Other people also recommend herbs and essential oils as well as eating certain foods to treat light sensitivity of this disorder. Some tips include wearing protective clothing, massaging with raspberry oil, avoiding sun exposure at noon, natural sunscreen, apply carrot essential oil and eating nutritious foods[12].

Current statistics of persecution of albinistic people

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In some African countries, people with albino are hunted for their body parts because it is believed by to have properties that bring good luck, wealth and healing[13].

In Tanzania alone where albinism is more common than most countries, there have been 75 killings since 2000[14].

In Malawi, which also has albinism being quite common, there have been at least 18 murders recorded since 2014 and 5 abductions[15].

Origins of myths and superstition about albinism in Ghana

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People in Ghana have many misconceptions when it comes to albinism. Some believe that albinos are a result of curses by gods or ancestors.During their lifetime, they encounter many difficulties because people believe that their blood gives extra magical powers, therefore, their lives are always at stake. They are believed to be less human for example there is a belief that they do not die, they are unintelligent and they are sterile. [16]


Life as an Albino in Ghana

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An albino in Ghana is protected by Article 17(2) of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana. He or she also belongs to the Ghana Association of Persons with Albinism (GAPA). Amidst all the legal backing, albinos are still socially uncomfortable. There are areas in the country where albinos are not allowed to live, because the spiritual gods of the land do not permit them to. In other areas, they are welcomed, only to be used for rituals. Generally, albinos are not fully accepted, even though they are protected by the state.[17] There are however ongoing petitions to set aside a day for Ghanaian Albinos, aside the International Albinism Awareness Day[18]

Action against persecution in Ghana

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With escalating killings, President Kikwete publicly and repeatedly condemned witch doctors, their helpers and middlemen, and the clients, which include members of the police force, for these murders. Victims include children snatched or abducted from their parents. The killers and their accomplices use hair, arms, legs, skin, eyes, genitals, and blood in rituals or for witch potions.[3]

The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has published a preliminary report regarding discrimination which has been directed toward people with albinism.[19]: 5  This report has been submitted as part of the Human Rights Council resolution 23/13 of 13 June 2013. It reinforced that "states would adopt specific measures to protect and preserve the rights to life and security of persons with albinism, as well as their right not to be subject to torture and ill treatment, and ensure their access to adequate health care, employment, education and justice."[19]: 1  The discrimination of albinos is often demonstrated by family members and relatives especially at birth, and ill-treatment by general society is widespread where there are severe issues of social exclusion and stigma. The Resolution 23/13 explains the Human Rights council's concerns about "attacks against persons with albinism".[19]: 3  Therefore, the Council encouraged the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) to submit a report. Navi Pillay is the current United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. As the representative, on 11 March 2014 she submitted a message which overviewed the current status of discrimination against persons with albinism and possible pathways for change and development in protection of albinos. "People with albinism have the right to live without fear or bullying, discrimination, social exclusion, killing and dismemberment."[20] This footage was published on 13 March 2014 to overview the current situation surrounding albinos who live in fear of being murdered or captured for the purposes of murder medicine and witch doctors belief in the magical potential of albino hair and limbs.

Also a key issue is the influence of educating the public to encourage the removal of the social stigma associated with albinos in a society which does not completely understand that albinism is not a curse or a spiritual ghost, but simply a skin condition. In Zimbabwe albinos have been given the name sope which indicated that they are possessed by evil spirits, and in Tanzania they are known as nguruwe meaning 'pig', or zeru which means 'ghost'.[3] The Report discusses the "most serious human rights violations faced by persons with albinism, primarily focusing on the ritual killings and attacks to which they are subjected."[19]: 3  It also includes recommendations to the international community and member states action towards persons with albinism.

Under the Same Sun led by albinism activist Peter Ash is organisation aiming to protect albinos from persecution and he delivered an oral intervention to the Human Rights Council in its 23rd session on 7 June 2013 on behalf of the East and Horn of Africa Human Rights Defenders project (EHAHRDP). His submission stated:

"Today I wish to address a little known but very serious human rights violation being perpetrated against people with albinism in many African nations. My NGO, Under the Same Sun, has evidence of the witchcraft related attacks and killings of 207 people with albinism in 16 African nations. The majority of the victims are children. From Tanzania and Burundi in the East, to Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire in the West and South Africa and Swaziland in the South, people born with this genetic condition live in fear every day. There exists a lucrative black market in albino body parts used to make what is promoted as powerful muti medicine. The hand, arm or any albino organ is combined with other ingredients and then sold for thousands of dollars: $3,000 for a hand or over $100,000 for an entire set of organs. Sometimes body parts are even shipped across borders. We seek a day when people with albinism will take their rightful place in all levels of African society and such days of discrimination will be a faint memory. To this end, we call on this Council to pass a resolution condemning acts of violence and discrimination against persons with albinism and to request the OHCHR or the Advisory Committee to carry out a study on such violations. As Edmund Burke so rightly stated, "all that is necessary for evil to prevail is for good men to do nothing."[21]

Future plans

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International federation Secretary General Bekele Geleta states that "Albinism is one of the most unfortunate vulnerabilities… and needs to be addressed immediately at international level."[22]: 20  This is a cry for international exposure and help to ensure that people suffering from albinism can be protected from inhumane killings and to be sheltered from the merciless hunters of albino body parts for their potions and spiritual medicine. "The main issues that should be addressed include skin cancer prevention education, stigma and discrimination denouncement, and swift prosecution of albino hunters and their sponsors."[3]: 80  Therefore, it is clear that albinos are facing many issues in their lives, and must be protected on the basis of human rights even if they look different and unlike any other race on earth. It is "imperative to inform the medical community and the general national and international public about the tragedies faced by albinos to protect them from skin cancer and ritualistic murders by individuals seeking wealth through clandestine markets perpetuating witchcraft."[22]

A number of steps were taken by the government to protect the albino population. The president ordered a crackdown on witchdoctors in the spring of 2008.[23] In addition, an albino woman, Al-Shymaa Kway-Geer, was named to become a member of the parliament, the first albino in such a position in the history of Tanzania. Police have also been advised to generate lists of albinos and provide special protection for them.[24]

To foil graverobbers, graves of the albinistic were to be sealed with concrete.[25] However, by October 2008, killings had not abated, and while some suspects had been apprehended, no convictions had taken place.[26] It was estimated that over 50 murders had taken place since March 2007, many of them in the mining and fishing communities near Lake Victoria, especially at Mwanza, Shinyanga and Mara.[27]

In January 2009, "Prime Minister Pinda had declared war on the albino hunters, and in an effort to stop the trade in albino body parts he had revoked the licenses of all the country's witch doctors who use the body parts in their black magic fetishes."[28]

Convictions against albino hunters

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The first ever conviction for the killing of an albino in Tanzania occurred on 23 September 2009 at the High Court in Kahama.[29][30][31][32] This was a "landmark verdict" was due to the fact that there have been more than 50 murders known at this time and this was the first actual conviction.[31] The conviction came about following the murder and mutilation of a 14-year-old boy, Matatizo Dunia, who was attacked by three men in Bukombe district in Shinyanga Region in December 2008.[31][32][33][34] The men carried Dunia from his home late at night before brutally murdering him. [35]

One of them was later found with Dunia's leg in his possession.[35] The rest of Dunia's body parts were located concealed in shrubbery.[35] The men confessed a desire to sell Dunia's parts to a witch doctor, yet despite this, their legal team had not anticipated the death sentence of hanging which the three men would receive.[35][33]

The Canada- and Tanzania-based Under The Same Sun albinism activist organisation praised the breakthrough but its founder Peter Ash remarked: "This is one conviction. There are 52 other families still awaiting justice".[36] The Tanzania Albino Society's chairman Ernest Kimaya called for the hanging to be made public to further demonstrate to others that the issue of killing albinos was to be taken seriously.[29][30][37]

This issue with witchcraft and its power and influence is that a witch doctor has, as he is almost always "revered by society as ultimate truth."[1]: 3  Most tribes in ancient times would have committed infanticide upon an albino child seeing it as a bad omen, practiced by the Sukuma, the Digo and the Maasai.[1]: 5  However, in some tribes the albinos were made the sacrifices of offerings to the gods or for such uses as potions which is what they are still hunted for today in the 21st century. "One of the most dangerous myths and the crux of recent attacks against PWA is that their body parts can be made into potions that give good luck and wealth to its users."[1]: 4 

In 2006 some of the first publicly reported killings were spoken about in the media, such as 34-year-old albino woman, Arithi, who was murdered with her arms and legs hacked off and sold. Some cases which have been key in recent years firstly occurred in 2008 when a Tanzanian man tried to sell his albino wife for a price of US$3,000 to Congolese businessmen.[38] Although the businessmen managed to escape their arrest, Interpol has been assigned to attempt to track these men. this is what led to President Jakaya Kikewere ordering a tightening of police and protection from prosecution, however due to corruption there is still proof that even policeman are being bribed and "bought off" to turn a blind eye to certain crimes if they are receiving pecuniary gain. Although according to BBC News one hundred and seventy witch doctors have been arrested for involvement in inhumane interactions and intentions with albinos.[38]

Another example which occurred where two mothers who were attacked by gangs with machetes in order to get to their albino children. The men broke into a refugee house known as the Lugufu Camp in Kigoma in search of the children; although the children remained untouched the women received severe injuries.[31] A further case uncovered by US congressman Gerry Connolly was the November 2008 in Ruyigi, Burundi where the case of a 6-year old albino girl who was shot dead and her head and limbs where hacked off, leaving only her dismembered torso.[39]

Organizations to prevent persecution

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Many organisations have been set up to help protect and provide for albino communities. Films have also been produced to encourage, educate and create an international understanding of the trials which albinos are facing in a modern world still dealing with ancient rituals and practices which encourage murder for medicine. This is against all international human rights legislation and therefore it is important that albinos are collectively protected. Organisations such as National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (NOAH),[40] Tanzania Albino Centre (TAC)[41] based in Arusha, Tanzania; aiming to "improve the lives of albinos with educational and medical assistance so that they may live safe, accepted, and prosperous lives in the society of their choice."[3] Other groups include Assisting Children in Need (ACN);[42] and Under the Same Sun[43] where Ash, an albino himself, states his aspirations and purpose for the project: "I have a dream that one day in Africa, people with albinism will take their rightful place throughout every level of society, and that the days of discrimination against persons with albinism will be a faint memory!"[43]

The International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC) is a key part of the albino protection movement who are working to integrate albinos back into society safely in Burundi "striving to minimize their vulnerability to hunters, skin cancer, and educational and social marginalization."[3]: 84  The IFRC particularly works with protecting mothers and children who are fearing persecution and they assist them in providing safe homes and protection where children are frightened of attacker's and by providing a special arena for the albinos it ensures safety protection and an environment of love, understanding of one another all with albinism, and unity in the battle against persecution and discrimination. The Red Cross have made it very clear in their publications that the government must also take drastic steps in protection of persons with albinism to stop the persecution. They have stated that it is imperative that the government strives to "Ensure effective legal protection for people with albinism, use local administrative structures to locate and protect albino people in hiding and conduct public anti-discrimination campaigns and extend medical services to albinos in need."[22]

Asante Mariamu is another organisation which was created after the survival of Mariamu Staford from an anti-albino attack which is determined to ensure that there is "swift prosecution and convictions of their killers" and therefore encouraging justice.[3]: 84  This story was presented to the US House of Representatives in March 2010 where US Congressman Gerry Connolly was impacted by this horrific story and "moved me to take action."[44] He introduced a bill to take action to severe violence being performed against albinos in east Africa and to bring justice and punishment to perpetrators. He spoke to the house in March 2010 urging his colleagues "to join me and Mariamu Stanford in bringing international attention to this horrific abuse of human rights."[44] This legislation condemns any injury, murder or mutilation of albinos and specifically urges the local east African government especially in Tanzania and Burundi "to take immediate action to prevent further violence against persons with albinism."[44] There are many more which are working on protecting albinos from persecution, and providing adequate health care, sun protection and learning facilities to ensure that albinos are treated fairly and with all human rights, and not hunted as animals in fear of their life. Albino Awareness day has also been created by Dr Aisha Sethi who is an assistant professor of dermatology in the Pritzker School of Medicine which is celebrated on 4th may each year. The President has also appointed Al-Shymaa Kway-Geer as an albino MP who seeks to be a voice in the Tanzanian parliament for protection against persecution of albinos in society and encourages facilities and support of their physical, medical, AND education protection and enhancement.

Skin Cancer

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Children with albinism in rural areas are exposed to high levels of ultraviolet light without the adequate protective gear resulting in skin damage. Only 12% of public schools provided SPF15 sunscreen for children with albinism. Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck is the most common type of cutaneous tumours in African patients with albinism. Non melanoma cancers, namely basal and squamos cell carcinoma, which are usually rare in black populations are common among the vulnerable group living with albinism. A South African study of 111 participants with OCA revealed that 23% of these participants developed skin cancer with the head area being the most commonly affected site.[45] Many people from rural areas like the Eastern Cape with albinism are unaware of the precautionary measures required to protect their skin. Dr Willie Visser, head of the dermatology division at Stellenbosch University and Tygerberg Hospital, said that while white South Africans presented with skin cancer only after the age of 60, most albinos presented with skin cancer as young as 20. The government health facilities are required to provide sunblock lotion to albinos on a monthly basis however this need is not always met due to stock-outs and lack of knowledge on the part of health workers.[46][47]

Racial classification

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Racial appearance and descent played a key role in the racial classification process during Apartheid. Additionally, different sociological and psychological give skin colour its many connotations. Skin colour is traditionally an instant indicator of identifying race and racial differences. Traditional definitions of race suggest that race and colour are inseparable however, for people with albinism race and colour are not linked. Though colour and race are used interchangeably, they remain independent grounds for discrimination. Individuals living with albinism should be protected against unfair discrimination on the basis of their race as well as their skin tone. Individuals living with albinism are exposed to discrimination, stigmatisation and prejudice based on their colour as well as their race. Skin tone discrimination may be interracial or it can be intraracial. Intraracial skin colour discrimination occurs when an individual of a particular racial group makes a distinction on the basis of skin colour between persons of the same racial group, while interracial colourism takes place when an individual of a particular racial group makes a distinction on the basis of skin colour between persons of another racial group. Scott argues that because current classifications of race do not afford people living with albinism adequate protection, a new category of colour should be proposed.[48] Mswela argues that additional divisions and classifications of race will reinforce problems associated with race.[49]

Discrimination

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The difference in appearance in the child with albinism creates socialization and adaption problems. The distinctive phenotypical difference of black (African) people with albinism and the rest of the population group leads to barriers in social integration thus ostracism.[45] South Africans living with albinism are among the most vulnerable in the country and there is hardly a serious attempt to protect these citizens from human rights violations, violent crimes, and threats. The extent of violent crimes for people with albinism is not as high as other African countries however, surges of violent crimes against people with albinism have been noted.[50] Their sensitivity to sunlight, which limits the extent to which they can participate in outdoor activities, contributes to the physical and social isolation of children living with albinism.[51] There has been an obligation and responsibility placed on the government to protect vulnerable people after the constitutional court decision on the Carmichele v Minister of Safety & Security case. The litigation in the Carmichele case creates a strategy for bringing a precautionary suit against the state based on the contention that the state has a duty to protect persons with albinism from violent acts.[52] The South African government has designated the month of September as Albinism Awareness month.[53] Thando Hopa, is a 24-year-old Public Prosecutor and model living with albinism. She is one of the few black albino models and albinism activists in the world.[54][55]

Myths

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Many African communities depend on traditional explanations of albinism rather than the biomedical explanation. This often leads to a negative socialisation of the individual with albinism.[51] People living with albinism are often referred to by derogatory names such as 'inkawu', the Nguni term for white baboon, 'isishawa' a Zulu translation of a person who is cursed as well as 'zeru zeru' which means ghost like.[56] The Swahili term 'zeru' is also commonly used in Tanzania.[57]

Three people were convicted of the murder of 20 year old Thandazile Mpunzi, including her 17 year old boyfriend. The boyfriend lured Mpunzi to an isolated area on the afternoon of August 1, 2015 in the Phelandaba area of Emanguzi in northern KwaZulu-Natal. She was strangled, murdered and body parts dismembered. They planned to sell the body parts of Thandazile Mpunzi for a fortune. They claimed that a traditional healer told them they would get rich if they mixed Mpunzi's blood and parts with 'muthi'. Two of the accused pleaded guilty of murder and are sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. Numerous accounts of murdered as well as missing people with albinism are reported. The trading of albino body parts has become a lucrative business.[58][59][60]

International reaction

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After events involving murders of albino people by three Tanzanian men had been publicised by the BBC and others, the European Parliament strongly condemned the killing of albinos in Tanzania on 4 September 2008.[61] The U.S. House of Representatives passed H. Resolution 1088, introduced by Rep. Gerry Connolly (D, VA), by a vote of 418-1 on 22 February 2010.[62] The resolution condemns the attacks and killings; categorizes them as human rights violations, and urges the governments of Tanzania and Burundi to vigorously prosecute such cases and to conduct educational campaigns to combat the superstitious beliefs that underlie the violent attacks.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference UTSS history was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ Schühle, Judith. "Medicine Murder of People with Albinism in Tanzania – How Casino Capitalism Creates Rumorscapes and Occult Economies (Working Paper No. 2-13)" (PDF). FU-Berlin.de. Center for Area Studies, Freie Universität Berlin. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cruz-Inigo, Andres E.; Ladizinski, Barry; Sethi, Aisha (January 2011). "Albinism in Africa: Stigma, Slaughter and Awareness Campaigns". Dermatologic Clinics. 29 (1): 79–87. doi:10.1016/j.det.2010.08.015. PMID 21095532. Retrieved 18 April 2014. Also available in PDF format.
  4. ^ Steiefel, (2014) Hats on for skin health: Albinos in Africa a population at risk "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 7 May 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Accessed 20 April 2014
  5. ^ Morton, T. (2014). Watu Kama Sisi: Reducing Skin Cancer, Stigma and Violence Against Albinos in the Mara Region (Report). Canada / Tanzania: Under the Same Sun.
  6. ^ https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/albinism/symptoms-causes/syc-20369184
  7. ^ https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/albinism/symptoms-causes/syc-20369184
  8. ^ https://www.webmd.com/eye-health/what-is-ocular-albinism#1
  9. ^ https://www.healthline.com/health/albinism
  10. ^ https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/albinism/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20369189
  11. ^ https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1200472-treatment
  12. ^ http://www.searchherbalremedy.com/8-best-natural-cures-for-albinism/
  13. ^ (www.dw.com), Deutsche Welle. "UN report criticizes surge in attacks on people with albinism in Africa | DW | 22.03.2016". DW.COM. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  14. ^ "Albinos are being hunted in Africa and 'harvested' for their body parts". Metro. 20 February 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  15. ^ CNN, Dominique van Heerden. "Hunting for humans: African albinos live in fear". CNN. Retrieved 24 April 2018. {{cite news}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  16. ^ https://kuulpeeps.com/2016/06/ridiculous-misconceptions-about-albinos/
  17. ^ https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/albinos-still-live-in-fear.html
  18. ^ http://www.un.org/en/events/albinismday/
  19. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference UNHRC 2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pillay was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ^ Ash, Peter (7 June 2013) Human Rights Council: 23rd Session Item 5: General Debate. Oral Intervention East and Horn of Africa Human Rights Defenders Project (EHAHRDP) http://www.underthesamesun.com/sites/default/files/Speech%20to%20UN%20June%202013.pdf Accessed 24 April 2014
  22. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference IFRC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  23. ^ "Tanzania in witchdoctor crackdown". BBC News. BBC. 3 April 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
  24. ^ Allen, Karen (21 July 2008). "Living in fear: Tanzania's albinos". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
  25. ^ "Tanzania Albinos Targeted Again". BBC News. BBC. 27 July 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
  26. ^ Kulekana, John (21 October 2008). "Crackdown vowed after Tanzania albino girl killed, mutilated". Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012.
  27. ^ Kiishweko, Orton (20 October 2008). "Tanzania: JK Orders Crackdown to Stem Murder of Albinos". The Citizen. Dar es Salaam.
  28. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  29. ^ a b "Albinos call for public hanging of murderers". The Citizen. 24 September 2009. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
  30. ^ a b "Albino killers 'should be hanged'". BBC. 24 September 2009. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
  31. ^ a b c d Howden, Daniel (24 September 2009). "Three sentenced to hang for murder of an African 'ghost'". The Independent. London. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
  32. ^ a b "Men severed albino boy's legs in ritual killing". Australian Broadcasting Company. 23 September 2009. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
  33. ^ a b "Death for Tanzania albino killers". BBC. 23 September 2009. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
  34. ^ "Tanzanian albino killers death sentence". BBC World Service. BBC. 23 September 2009. Retrieved 24 September 2009. Includes audio.
  35. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference Malone was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  36. ^ Obulutsa, George (23 September 2009). "Three men to hang for Tanzania albino murder". Reuters. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
  37. ^ "Albino killers to be hanged". Ghana Broadcasting Corporation. 25 September 2009. Archived from the original on 28 September 2009. Retrieved 25 September 2009.
  38. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference BBC wife was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  39. ^ This Day Reporter (16 March 2010) US Congress passes new law against albinos torture, killings (http://www.thisday.co.tz/?l=10722. Accessed 15 April 2014
  40. ^ The National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (NOAH) http://www.albinism.org
  41. ^ Tanzania Albino Center (TAC) http://www.tanzaniaalbino.org/ )
  42. ^ Assisting Children in Need (ACN) http://www.assistingchildreninneed.com
  43. ^ a b Ash, Peter (2014) "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Under the Same Sun (2014). Accessed 20 April 2014
  44. ^ a b c This Day Reporter (16 March 2010) US Congress passes new law against albinos torture, killings. http://www.thisday.co.tz/?l=10722. Accessed 15 April 2014
  45. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference ReferenceA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  46. ^ https://www.iol.co.za/weekend-argus/lifestyle/albinos-have-higher-cancer-risk-7632653 Accessed 3 August 2017
  47. ^ http://www0.sun.ac.za/vivus/vivus-1-february-2017/engagement/doctors-reach-out-to-children-at-risk-for-skin-cancer.html Accessed 3 August 2017
  48. ^ Scott S. A new category of colour: Analyzing albinism under Title VII of the Americans with Disabilities Act. J Gender Race & Just 1999;2(2):508.
  49. ^ S Afr J BL 2013;6(1):25-27. DOI:10.7196/SAJBL.236 http://www.sajbl.org.za/index.php/sajbl/article/view/236/287 Accessed 3 September 2017
  50. ^ Maureen Mswela. African Human Rights Law Journal, Volume 17 Number 1, Aug 2017, p. 114 - 133. https://journals.co.za/content/journal/10520/EJC-8dc964ce9 Accessed 3 September 2017
  51. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference doi.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  52. ^ M Mswela ‘Violent attacks against persons with albinism in South Africa: A human rights perspective ’ (2017) 17 African Human Rights Law Journal 114-133 https://dx.doi.org/10.17159/1996-2096/2017/v17n1a6 Accessed 3 September 2017
  53. ^ https://www.westerncape.gov.za/general-publication/raising-awareness-about-albinism Accessed 3 September 2017
  54. ^ http://www.sundayworld.co.za/lifestyle/2017/07/24/south-african-model-thando-hopa-works-with-whoopi-goldberg-on-pirelli-calendar Accessed 3 September 2017
  55. ^ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/nov/02/south-africa-model-albinism-prejudice Accessed 3 September 2017
  56. ^ http://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2017/06/05/being-black-in-a-white-skin-students-with-albinism-battle-prejudice Accessed 3 September 2017
  57. ^ http://www.sowetanlive.co.za/sowetan/archive/2008/09/03/under-skins-of-fear Accessed 3 September 2017
  58. ^ https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21700395-superstition-fuelling-grisly-trade-human-body-parts-tanzania-shows-how-it-can-be Accessed 3 September 2017
  59. ^ http://www.enca.com/south-africa/kzn-teenager-gets-18-year-sentence-albino-girlfriends-muti-murder Accessed 3 September 2017
  60. ^ http://www.enca.com/south-africa/missing-albino-boys-family-not-suspects-says-police Accessed 3 September 2017
  61. ^ "Resolution on the killing of albinos in Tanzania". European Parliament. 4 September 2008.
  62. ^ H. Resolution 1088 at opencongress.org Archived 2 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine

Further reading

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