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Performing arts influencing prosocial behaviour

Performing arts, including creative activities such as dance, music and theatre, are ingrained in many cultures and are often created for entertainment purposes, but can also be used to promote prosocial behaviour (Kirschner & Tomasello, 2010). Prosocial behaviour can be defined as behaviour that aims to help others, and is comprised of emotional and behavioural components, including empathy, sharing and donating (Rathje et al., 2021). These prosocial elements can be influenced by increased socialisation and group bonding, which can be fostered by performing arts (Kirschner & Tomasello, 2010). Therefore, research has begun to focus on how active and passive participation in performing arts can influence prosocial behaviour.

This article will cover three main performing arts, music, dance and drama, and explain how they influence prosocial behaviour. Additionally, the use performing arts in intervention programmes to increase prosocial behaviour and improve other social and emotional skills will be outlined. The recency of this research means there are also several suggestions for future work to improve the understanding of the relationship between performing arts and prosocial behaviour.

Music

Music has been deep-rooted in many cultures for up to 40,000 years (Conard et al., 2009). An evolutionary perspective depicts music as a way to create group cohesion and helping behaviours for the community (Kirschner & Tomasello, 2010). Recently, music (particularly in Western cultures) is consumed through individual means for leisure (North et al., 2004). However, there is growing evidence that active music participation can influence prosocial behaviour.

Active music engagement

Creating music is a social activity that promotes prosocial behaviour through several mechanisms, including developing communication skills and group cohesiveness (Buren et al., 2021; Kirschner & Tomasello, 2010). This is shown from an early age, with recent findings suggesting active music engagement can increase the prosocial behaviour of toddlers as young as 18 months old (Buren et al., 2021). This suggests that music making's influence on prosocial behaviour may relate to evolutionary theories, as there is a lack of understanding of complex social interactions at a young age, yet music appears to foster greater social helping behaviour (Tarr et al., 2014).

As children develop, collaboration with peers can help to develop social and emotional skills, including improved sharing and prosocial behaviour (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore, school music sessions provide an opportunity to develop prosocial behaviour and positive behavioural outcomes alongside their peers. Research has showed positive associations between active music participation and prosocial behaviour in primary school children (Schellenberg et al., 2015). However, Schellenberg et al. (2015) noted some methodological limitations to their work. Opting for a natural experiment increases the risk of confound variables and correlational findings means a direction of causality cannot be established. Future research could reduce a potential confound is by comparing prosocial outcomes in a music vs a non-music group that still involves group interaction, for example a drama group.

Passive music engagement

While active music engagement promotes greater prosocial behaviour (Buren et al; Ma et al., 2024), passive music engagement, such as listening to music, can still influence prosocial behaviour. The lyrics and tonality of songs can contain messages that influence mood and emotional states (Lonsdale & North, 2011). Song lyrics may also alter an individual's cognition and arousal, with changes to their internal state influencing behavioural outcomes (Buckley & Anderson, 2006). Research has mainly focused on the influence of aggressive song lyrics on behavioural outcomes (Anderson et al., 2003; Coyne & Padilla-Walker, 2015). There are fewer studies focusing on prosocial lyrics and their influence. Such research suggests that listening to songs with prosocial lyrics can increase empathy and helping behaviour (Greitemeyer, 2009; Jacob et al., 2010) and can reduce aggressive thoughts (Böhm et al., 2016). However, longitudinal designs have found no association between prosocial lyrics and prosocial behaviour (Coyne & Padilla-Walker, 2015). Therefore, it is unclear whether the influence of prosocial lyrics can influence prosocial behaviour over time.

Music interventions

Theoretical work on the influence of music on prosocial behaviour has shaped musical interventions. Music interventions aim to develop social and emotional learning and reduce social exclusion, which reduces the risk of future psychological and behavioural problems (Cook et al., 2019; Morgo-Wilson & Tredinnick, 2020). Present studies into the effectiveness of music interventions have mixed findings (Cook et al., 2019; Morgo-Wilson & Tredinnick, 2020). One suggested influence on findings is that some contexts may already promote prosocial behaviour. Therefore, high baseline levels of prosocial behaviour mean that increases following treatment are likely to be small and non-significant (Cook et al., 2019). Another limitation of these studies is their failure to assess the long-term effects of music interventions on prosocial outcomes. Engagement in musical activities is associated with positive prosocial outcomes later in life (Garrod & Dowell, 2020). Future research could replicate studies similar to Morgo-Wilson & Tredinnick (2020) but assess the long-term efficacy of music intervention programmes on prosocial outcomes to determine a causal link.

Dance

Much like the creation of music, the evolutionary role of dance was to encourage the formation of social bonds (Fink et al., 2021). Dance presents opportunities to develop prosocial skills, including communication, turn taking and group cohesion (Kotaman et al., 2024). A specific component of dance that encourages the formation of social bonds and subsequent prosocial behaviour is synchrony.

Synchrony

Synchrony refers to when two or more people move in time with each other (Cirelli, 2018). Social perspectives argue that similar movements build a shared similarity between individuals (Valdesolo & DeSteno, 2011). Social bonds and trust develop between individuals, which leads to greater empathy and prosocial behaviours (Kotaman et al., 2024; Launay et al., 2013; Rabinowitch & Meltzoff, 2017). This is shown from as young as 18 months old. Cirelli et al. (2014) found that infants were more likely to show spontaneous prosocial behaviour towards others after being bounced to music synchronously compared to asynchronously. Extended research demonstrated that this prosocial behaviour can be extended to people associated with their synchronously moving partner (Cirelli et al., 2016). Evidence supporting the association between synchrony and prosocial behaviour has also been generalised to different age ranges. Reddish et al. (2013) found that adults showed improved cooperation and self-reported prosocial behaviour when dancing in synchrony and with a shared intentionality. Therefore, this suggests that synchronising body movements can help to promote similarities between individuals and lead to increased helping behaviours across different ages.

While these studies provide strong evidence, the influence of dance on prosocial behaviour could be confounded by music. Dance and music are closely linked, with research focusing on synchronised dancing to music. Music can elicit emotional reactions and can regulate moods (Corbeil et al., 2015). A person's mood can influence their prosocial behaviour (Niesta Kayser et al., 2010). Therefore, to determine whether interpersonal synchrony is a main contributor to prosocial behaviour, future research should aim to compare prosocial behaviour in synchronous dance groups with music to synchronous dance groups without music.

Dance/movement therapy

Findings of the influence of dance on prosocial behaviour can be applied to therapy treatments. Dance/movement therapy (DMT) involves synchronised dance movement to increase empathy and prosocial behaviour (Behrends et al., 2012). DMT has also shown to be effective in reducing a range of psychopathological and health related issues (Karkou et al., 2019; Koch et al., 2014). The recent application of DMT to prosocial behaviour means there are uncertainties behind what causes increased empathy. One theory suggests that increases in empathy are triggered by mirror neurons (Berrol, 2006). Mimicry involves the imitation of another person, and its use in DMT has been associated with enhanced mirror neuron activity for the patient and therapist. This creates an emotional connection between the therapist and patient, increasing levels of empathy (McGarry & Russo, 2011).

With few side effects and applications to several patient groups, such as autistic patients, DMT offers a treatment to improve both positive emotional and behavioural prosocial skills. While research suggests a link between mirror neurons and empathy, more research should be conducted to see how mirroring behaviours in DMT can influence empathy, and the effectiveness of DMT over time in improving prosocial skills (McGarry & Russo, 2011).

Drama

Drama allows for social interaction and group work through acting together (Şenol, 2019). While drama is commonly performed for entertainment purposes (Rathje et al., 2021), active and passive drama engagement can increase prosocial behaviour.

Active drama engagement

Active drama engagement involves communication and cooperation with others while performing (Korošec & Zorec, 2020). These interactions can improve interpersonal relationships, leading to positive behavioural outcomes (Schellenberg et al., 2015), as well as facilitating social learning of prosocial behaviours (Korošec & Zorec, 2020). Research suggests children as young as three years old demonstrate improved communication and cooperation skills following drama education programmes (Şenol, 2019). Levels of empathy and quality of social interactions are also improved in adults following active theatre performing. These findings were consistent across men and women, encompassing a broad age range (Lewandowska & Węziak-Białowolska, 2022). Drama-based interventions are also effective at improving social cohesiveness and emotional understanding for those who lack prosocial skills and feel socially excluded (Beadle-Brown et al., 2017).

However, this is a new area of research, meaning studies are limited, and several current studies contain small sample sizes (Lewandowska & Węziak-Białowolska, 2022). This suggests that the findings from drama-based interventions should be viewed with caution. Future research should aim to implement large sample sizes in research on the influence of drama interventions on prosocial behaviour, to provide empirical support to current research and theoretical suggestions.

Passive drama engagement

Passive drama engagement refers to watching dramatic performances. Fictional drama often involves storytelling and narratives which can raise political and moral issues (Rathje et al., 2021). Societal issues can induce deeper cognitive processing and empathic concern in the audience, which can increase prosocial behaviours (Rathje et al., 2021). Much of the research into observing dramatic performances, particularly theatrical performances, used correlational designs and small sample sizes, meaning there is a limited causal explanatory power for the role of passive drama engagement on prosocial outcomes (Van de Vyver & Abrams, 2018).

However, a recent field study by Rathje et al. (2021) measured audiences' attitudes to societal issues presented in a play and the likelihood of donations to these causes after watching. Findings showed that after watching a theatre production, audience members reported greater altruistic values. The audience also had greater intentions to donate and actually donate to the causes highlighted in the show. These findings were mediated by how much empathy the play evoked and how transformed the audience were in the play (Rathje et al., 2021). This provides the first causal findings that passive drama engagement can elicit real-life empathy and prosocial behaviours. However, the authors stress several extensions of their study, including comparing prosocial behaviour in live theatre to non-live acting, to better understand their findings.

Conclusions

From the available research, performing arts influence prosocial behaviour, although research is still in its infancy. All three arts covered in the article present a common theme: interactions with others during the performing arts help to develop social and emotional skills, including social bonds, group cohesiveness and empathy (Berrol, 2006; Morgo-Wilson & Tredinnick, 2020). All of these traits increase prosocial behaviour. Performing arts have practical applications with intervention programmes aimed at improving prosocial behaviour and reducing negative behavioural outcomes (Şenol, 2019). Current findings of its efficacy are promising, although contain methodological flaws, including small sample sizes and a lack of longitudinal data (Cook et al., 2019; Lewandowska & Węziak-Białowolska, 2022). Future research should aim to conduct longitudinal research into the durable influence of performing arts interventions on prosocial outcomes.

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