Jump to content

Tri-State tornado outbreak

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the tornado that struck Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee in 2021, see 2021 Tri-State tornado.
Tri-State tornado outbreak
A city block damaged by the tri state tornado in Murphysboro, Illinois.
Meteorological history
FormedMarch 17, 1925
DissipatedMarch 19, 1925
Tornado outbreak
Tornadoes≥12
Maximum ratingF5 tornado
Duration7 hours
Highest winds>300 mph (480 km/h)
Overall effects
Fatalitiesat least 751, likely higher
Injuries> 2,298
DamageOver $17 million (1925 USD); at least $1.4 billion (1997 USD)
$2.66 billion (2024 USD)[1][nb 1]
Areas affectedMidwestern and southeastern United States

On March 18, 1925, one of the deadliest tornado outbreaks in recorded history generated at least 12 significant tornadoes and spanned a large portion of the midwestern and southern United States. In all, at least 751 men, women and children were killed and more than 2,298 were injured,[2] making the outbreak the deadliest tornado outbreak in U.S. history. The outbreak generated several destructive tornadoes in Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on the same day, as well as significant tornadoes in Alabama and Kansas. In addition to confirmed tornadoes, there were undoubtedly others with lesser impacts, the occurrences of which have been lost to history.[3]

The outbreak included the Tri-State Tornado, the deadliest disaster in Illinois, the deadliest tornado in U.S. history, and the second-deadliest registered in world history.[4][5][6] The 219-mile-long (352 km) track left by the tornado, as it crossed from southeastern Missouri, through southern Illinois, and then into southwestern Indiana, is also the longest ever recorded.[7] Modern meteorological re-analysis has suggested that the extremely long path length and lifespan reported in historical accounts are perhaps more plausibly attributed to multiple independent tornadoes belonging to a tornado family, rather than a single, continuous tornado.[3] Although not officially rated by NOAA, the Tri-State Tornado is recognized by most experts (such as Tom Grazulis[8] and Ted Fujita[9]) as an F5 tornado, the maximum damage rating issued on the Fujita scale.[10][nb 2][nb 3][nb 4]

Background

[edit]
Track of the Tri-State tornado

During a six-year review study of the Tri-State tornado published in 2013, new surface and upper air data was obtained and meteorological reanalysis was utilized, adding significantly to knowledge of the synoptic and even mesoscale background of the event. The late winter to early spring of 1925 was warmer and drier than normal over much of the central United States. There apparently was persistent ridging in the western U.S. with a troughing pattern over the central U.S.[3]

The extratropical cyclone that set the synoptic stage for the outbreak was centered over northwestern Montana at 7:00 a.m. CST (13:00 UTC) on March 17. Meanwhile, a diffuse area of surface low pressure was centered near Denver, Colorado, in association with a lee trough. Occluded fronts extended from Hudson Bay southwestward into the northern Plains states and into the lee trough. The synoptic cyclone moved south-southeastward across the mountain states to eastern Colorado. A warm front stretched along the Gulf Coast, separating warm, moist air from cool, showery weather with areas of fog that extended from Texas to the Carolinas. A well-mixed early-season continental tropical (cT) air mass existed over West Texas and northern New Mexico. To the east of this hot, dry air, buoyant maritime tropical (mT) air was advecting from the Gulf of Mexico. Simultaneously, a mid- to upper-level shortwave trough likely approached the northwest coast of the U.S. and moved rapidly through the persistent ridge then digging southeastward across the Great Basin and central Rocky Mountains and emerging in the Plains over Colorado. This initiated a "Colorado low" cyclogenesis.[3]

At 7:00 a.m. CST on March 18, the surface low-pressure area, at approximately 1,003 hPa (29.6 inHg), moved to far northeastern Oklahoma while the warm front shot north into the circulation where the front then extended eastward. A maritime Polar (mP) cold front draped southwestward across eastern Texas with a dry line forming directly to the south of the low. The open shortwave, likely somewhat negatively tilted, was continuing to approach from the northwest and an apparent outflow boundary moved just to the south of the warm front over northeastern Arkansas and northwestern Tennessee. Several weak pressure troughs were traversing the cool sector over the north-central U.S.. Surface temperatures in the warm sector near the dry line and warm front ranged from 60–70 °F (16–21 °C), and the dew point was 55–65 °F (13–18 °C), with higher values farther south and increasing over time as the deepening low-pressure area continued to pull up air from the Gulf of Mexico. https://www.weather.gov/pah/1925Tornado_wi#:~:text=In This resulted in unstable air and lower cloud bases, or low LCL heights, which is favorable to tornadogenesis. From southeastern Kansas to Kentucky and Indiana, early morning showers and thunderstorms north of the low and warm front cooled and stabilized that air, retarding northward advancement of the front, and led to a sharp contrast in temperature from north to south. Such baroclinic zones are also associated with tornadic storms. Ahead of the surface dry line, which are uncommon as far east as the Mississippi River,[20] an apparent "dry punch" of air aloft served to further increase instability. Concurrently, a capping inversion likely suppressed storms throughout the warm sector, leaving the Tri-State supercell undisturbed by nearby convection.[3]

By 12:00 p.m. CST (18:00 UTC), the deepening surface low was centered over south-central Missouri, the shortwave axis was moving easterly and oriented over eastern Oklahoma, and the dry line was rapidly advancing eastward directly south of the low as the warm front, situated due east of the low, slowly shifted northward. Morning clouds cleared by midday across much of the Tri-State tornado's eventual path. A pronounced pressure trough extended northeast of the low and signaled its future track as a prefrontal trough formed southeast of the low ahead of the dry line. A bulge in the dry line may also have been forming slightly south of the low, and southerly to southeasterly surface winds were backing and increasing with time throughout the warm sector. The Tri-State supercell formed in a highly favorable area just ahead of the triple point where the cold front, warm front, and dry line met. The supercell initiated very near the surface low and moved east-northeastward, faster than the low, such that the storm gradually deviated east of the low's track. The supercell remained near this "sweet spot" for a prolonged period as it also traveled near the highly baroclinic warm front (likely just across the cool side of the boundary) for several hours.[3]

Tri-State tornado storm track and other tornadoes that day from Monthly Weather Review, April 1925.[21] The information about the temperature, pressure, and other tornadoes may not be accurate.

By 2:00 p.m. CST (20:00 UTC), the low was centered slightly south-southwest of St. Louis, Missouri, as the Tri-State supercell neared the Mississippi River. Other storms in the warm sector, removed from the Tri-State supercell, were initiating around 3:00 p.m. CST (21:00 UTC). Around 4:00 p.m. CST (22:00 UTC), the low's central pressure lowered to around 998 hPa (29.5 inHg), centered over south-central Illinois, as the supercell was moving into Indiana. This pressure is not particularly low compared to many other outbreak setups, but the pressure gradient was strong, which induced strong gradient winds and significant advection in the warm sector. A very strong low level jet was also in place just above the surface as winds veered with height, resulting in low-level curvature and long hodographs. Strong wind shear thus existed, with pronounced directional shear likely in the vicinity of the warm front, with winds at the 700 hPa height level west-southwesterly around 70 mph (110 km/h) and winds at the 500 hPa level about 90–110 mph (140–180 km/h). Theoretical hodographs returned estimated storm relative environmental helicity (SREH) values of 340 m2 s−2 in the vicinity of the Tri-State supercell track. Strong thunderstorms were now scattered throughout the warm sector and a line of severe thunderstorms was occurring near the dry line. The Tri-State supercell appeared to still be discrete and isolated, with a severe storm north of Cairo, Illinois, placed well to its south.[3]

By 6:00 p.m. CST (00:00 UTC), the shortwave axis was over eastern Missouri and was lifting northeast. At 7:00 p.m. CST (01:00 UTC), the low was placed near Indianapolis, Indiana, with numerous thunderstorms east and south of the low and a squall line moving into the southeastern U.S. Cold air advection behind the strong cold front fed into the cyclone as snow and sleet fell from eastern Iowa to central Michigan. At 7:00 a.m. CST on March 19, the low was deepening and lifting rapidly northeastward into Canada.

Confirmed tornadoes

[edit]

These are estimated tornado ratings as tornado ratings in the United States were not official until 1950.

Confirmed tornadoes by Fujita rating
FU F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total
≥3 ? ? 2 4 2 1 ≥12
List of confirmed tornadoes in the Tri-State tornado outbreak[nb 5][nb 6]
F# Location County / Parish State Time (UTC) Path length Max. width Damage
F2 Dearing Montgomery Kansas 11:10–? Un­known Un­known Un­known
This tornado wrecked a pair of barns and a filling station. Porches were torn loose from homes as well.[23]
FU Moore and Jackson Townships Shannon Missouri 18:40–? Un­known Un­known Un­known
This tornado was likely a separate member of the Tri-State tornado family.[7]
F5 WNW of Ellington (MO) to Murphysboro (IL) to Oatsville (IN) Reynolds (MO), Iron (MO), Madison (MO), Bollinger (MO), Perry (MO), Jackson (IL), Williamson (IL), Franklin (IL), Hamilton (IL), White (IL), Posey (IN), Gibson (IN), Pike (IN) Missouri, Illinois, Indiana 18:45–22:30 219 mi (352 km) 2,650 yd (2,420 m) $17,000,000
695 deaths – See article on this tornado – This is the deadliest and longest-tracked tornado in U.S. history. There were 588 fatalities in Illinois and 95 in Indiana, making this the deadliest tornado for both states.[3][24][10][7][25]
F4 Mauckport (IN) to S of Louisville (KY) Harrison (IN), Jefferson (KY) Indiana, Kentucky 22:15–? 18 mi (29 km) 1,200 yd (1,100 m) $150,000
4 deaths – A large, extremely violent tornado impacted 27 farmsteads in Indiana, many of which were leveled; some entire farmsteads were obliterated, particularly near Laconia and Elizabeth, Indiana. The tornado leveled a two-block-wide swath next to the Ohio River, in what is now Pleasure Ridge Park. A multi-story brick home was obliterated in Lakeland. 60 people were injured.[26][10][27]
F2 Northwestern Littleville Colbert Alabama 22:42–? 12 mi (19 km) 60 yd (55 m) $15,000
1 death – This tornado destroyed a store, a filling station, and a pair of homes. 12 people were injured.[10]
F4 Buck Lodge (TN) to Westmoreland (TN) to Beaumont (KY) Sumner (TN), Macon (TN), Allen (KY), Barren (KY), Monroe (KY), Metcalfe (KY) Tennessee, Kentucky 23:00–? 60 mi (97 km) 400 yd (370 m) >$300,000
41 deaths – An exceptionally violent tornado family began north of Gallatin, Tennessee. Homes and churches were leveled in many communities, and several were swept away. At least 29 deaths occurred in Tennessee, eight of them in a single family, and 50 others were injured. This tornado may have reached F5 intensity at one or more points, and is considered one of the most powerful tornadoes in Middle Tennessee on record. Bodies were found dismembered hundreds of yards from homesites, and ground scouring occurred along the path. Despite crossing rugged terrain, the tornado remained as violent on hillsides as in valleys, leveling entire forests. In Kentucky, the tornado killed four people near Holland and eight more near Beaumont. In all, 95 injuries occurred along the entire path.[26][10][28][27]
F3 Eastern Louisville to Pewee Valley Jefferson, Oldham Kentucky 23:00–? 10 mi (16 km) Un­known Un­known
3+ deaths – This tornado likely developed from the same storm as the Mauckport–Louisville F4. At least 12 homes were destroyed, three of which were multi-story, including a three-story brick home. Other structures and barns were unroofed or destroyed as well. 40 people were injured. The death toll may have exceeded three.[10][27]
F3 Western Marion County to Lexington Marion, Washington, Mercer, Jessamine, Fayette, Bourbon Kentucky 23:30–? 60 mi (97 km) 300 yd (270 m) Un­known
2 deaths – A probable tornado family passed near Springfield. Many structures were destroyed in Washington County, including an entire all-black neighborhood in Jimtown. Rural farmhouses and barns were demolished as well, including at least one large, multi-story home. Damage may have reached F4-level intensity at one or more points along the path. 40 people were injured.[10][27]
F3 W of College Grove to Kirkland Williamson, Rutherford Tennessee 23:45–? 20 mi (32 km) 200 yd (180 m) $30,000
1 death – A significant tornado caused major damage to homes in Kirkland, a large one of which incurred F3-level damage. 30 barns and eight small homes were destroyed or damaged as well. At some spots all vegetation was reportedly swept away. Nine people were injured.[10][28]
FU Monroe Township to Vernon Township Washington, Jackson Indiana 23:46–? 20 mi (32 km) Un­known Un­known
This large tornado was likely a continuation of the Tri-State tornado family. It caused significant damage to homes and a church across rural locales, including some homes that were flattened. Several people were injured.[7]
F3 Unionville to NE of Fosterville Bedford, Rutherford Tennessee 00:10–? 12 mi (19 km) 300 yd (270 m) Un­known
4 deaths – At least 10 homes were destroyed, and 15 people were injured.[10][28]
FU S of Petersburg Pike Indiana Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known
This tornado was likely a separate member of the Tri-State tornado family.[7]

Tri-State tornado

[edit]
Main article: 1925 Tri-State tornado
Tri-State tornado
Black-and-white chart showing a bold line crossing three states.
The path of the Tri-State tornado. The storm covered a distance of over 219 miles (352 km) in its 3½-hour lifetime, traveling at forward speeds in excess of 70 miles per hour (110 km/h).
Meteorological history
FormedMarch 18, 1925
12:45 p.m. CST (UTC−06:00)
Reynolds County, Missouri
DissipatedMarch 18, 1925
4:30 p.m. CST (UTC−06:00)
Pike County, Indiana
Duration3 hours, 45 minutes
F5 tornado
on the Fujita scale
Path length219 miles (352 km)
Highest winds>300 mph (480 km/h)
Overall effects
Fatalitiesat least 695, likely higher (deadliest tornado in United States history)
Injuries2,027
Damage$16.5 million (1925 USD); $2.6 billion (2024 USD)
Areas affectedSouthern Missouri, Illinois, Indiana

The tornado was first sighted as a highly visible and relatively small condensation funnel in the rugged forested hills of Moore Township, Shannon County, Missouri, at about 12:40 p.m. CST. However, this was likely a separate member of the tornado family, and the main member likely began in Reynolds County, west-northwest of Ellington, around five minutes later.[7] The first fatality occurred around 1:01 p.m. CST (19:01 UTC), when a farmer was caught off-guard north-northwest of Ellington.

The tornado sped to the northeast, moving into Iron County and hitting the mining town of Annapolis and the small mining village of Leadanna. Within a matter of minutes, two people were killed and 90% of the town was leveled.[29] It then crossed into the sparsely populated areas of Madison County south of Fredericktown, where near Cherokee Pass the tornado steadily began to grow larger.[30]

In Bollinger County, 32 children were injured when two schools were damaged. Multiple homes and farms were completely destroyed near Lixville, where a farmer and three children were killed, and a third child died from her injuries one week after the storm. Deep ground scouring was observed near the town of Sedgewickville as well. The tornado carried sheets of iron as far as 50 miles (80 km) away.

The tornado then crossed the Mississippi River into southern Illinois, debarking trees and deeply scouring the ground in rural areas before hitting the riverside town of Gorham at 2:30 p.m. CST (20:30 UTC), essentially obliterating the entire town. 60 of the 80 homes, all the store fronts, the train depot, and 2 out of the 3 levels of the school were destroyed with the remaining 20 houses being damaged.[31] Railroad tracks were also reportedly ripped from the ground. More than half the town's population was injured or killed; 30 were killed in the immediate storm and 170 were injured, six of whom later died.[32][33]

Continuing to the northeast at an average speed of 62 mph (100 km/h) (and up to 73 mph (117 km/h)), the tornado cut a swath almost 1 mi (1.6 km) wide through the city of Murphysboro, a thriving coal shipping center and railroad town of 10,000. The tornado leveled all but the extreme southeastern side of town, where many densely populated working-class neighborhoods saw some of the storm's most horrific effects. Entire rows of homes were leveled and swept away in some areas.[34] Many other structures were also damaged or destroyed throughout the town, including the M&O railroad shop, where 35 people were killed, mostly in fires after the tornado.[35] Schools in the area were devastated as well, with 17 students killed at the Longfellow School and nine others killed at the Logan School.[29]

After exiting De Soto, the tornado clipped the northwest corner of Williamson County, narrowly missing the town of Hurst and striking the small village of Bush. Several homes were leveled, and pieces of wood were speared into the town's water tower. Heavy railroad axles were reportedly lifted and scattered across the railyard.[36] The tornado killed 10 people in Bush and the surrounding area, and injured another 37, four of whom later died.[37]

Further east, the tornado crossed into Franklin County, narrowly missing the towns of Royalton and Zeigler, devastating rural areas and killing 25 people—20 of whom perished immediately and another five in the days to come—before heading towards the large mining town of West Frankfort. The tornado struck the northwest side of town, where in a manner similar to what was seen at Murphysboro, a number of densely populated neighborhoods, businesses and mining operations fell victim to the tornado. At the Orient Mine, a large multi-ton coal tipple was blown over and rolled by the tornado. Extreme damage continued east of town, as a railroad trestle was torn from its supports, and 300 ft (91 m) of railroad track was ripped from the ground and blown away. The immediate storm claimed 81 lives at West Frankfort, while injuring a staggering 410, 21 of whom later died, bringing the death toll for the town to 102.[38]

Ruins of the town of Griffin, Indiana, where 44 people were killed

Crossing the Wabash River just north of New Harmony, the tornado then entered Indiana. Grazing the northernmost edge of Posey County, the tornado struck and completely demolished the town of Griffin, where not a single structure was left untouched by the storm, and many were completely swept away; 41 people were killed at Griffin and in the surrounding areas, another 202 were injured, with five later dying, bringing the death toll at Griffin to 46.[39]

After exiting Griffin, the tornado made a slight turn towards the northeast as it crossed into Gibson County, devastating rural areas and clipping the northwest corner of Owensville, resulting in nine fatalities. The tornado then roared into the large factory town of Princeton, destroying much of the southern side of the town, killing 38 people and injuring 152, six of whom later died.[40] Large sections of neighborhoods in Princeton were leveled, and a Heinz factory was badly damaged.[41] The tornado traveled more than 10 mi (16 km) to the northeast, crossing into Pike County before finally dissipating at about 4:30 p.m. CST, near Oatsville. In Indiana, at least 95 (and probably more) perished.[42]

Non-tornadic effects

[edit]

Strong thunderstorms were reported in a broad area that also included parts of Oklahoma, Michigan, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ontario. Numerous reports of hail and straight-line winds were reported, with up to 4+1⁄2-inch-diameter (11 cm) hail recorded (by comparison, a softball is 3+1⁄2–3.8 in (8.9–9.7 cm) in diameter). What began in the early afternoon as discrete supercell thunderstorms eventually consolidated into a potent squall line. By all accounts it was a widespread outbreak with severe thunderstorms occurring as far east as Ohio, as far southwest as Louisiana, and as far southeast as Georgia.[3]

See also

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tri-State Tornado.

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ All losses are in 1925 USD unless otherwise noted.
  2. ^ An outbreak is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An outbreak sequence, prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one significant (F2 or stronger) tornado.[11]
  3. ^ The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[12][13] While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007,[14] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[15] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[16]
  4. ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[17] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[18] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[19]
  5. ^ All dates are based on the local time zone where the tornado touched down; however, all times are in Coordinated Universal Time and dates are split at midnight CST/CDT for consistency.
  6. ^ Prior to 1994, only the average widths of tornado paths were officially listed.[22]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Brooks, Harold E.; C. A. Doswell (February 2001). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather Forecast. 16 (1): 168–176. Bibcode:2001WtFor..16..168B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2001)016<0168:NDFMTI>2.0.CO;2.
  2. ^ "Tri-State Tornado". ArcGIS StoryMaps. June 24, 2022. Retrieved November 2, 2024.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Maddox et al. 2013.
  4. ^ "The deadliest disaster to ever happen in each state". MSN. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
  5. ^ Gibson, Christine (Aug–Sep 2006). "Our 10 Greatest Natural Disasters". American Heritage. 57 (4).
  6. ^ Tri-State Tornado - History, Facts and Information
  7. ^ a b c d e f Johns et al. 2013.
  8. ^ Grazulis 2001b, p. 17.
  9. ^ Fujita 1973, pp. 56–83.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i Grazulis 1993, p. 796.
  11. ^ Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E.; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) (PDF). 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
  12. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 141.
  13. ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 131.
  14. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  15. ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  16. ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  17. ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–4.
  18. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)". Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  19. ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135.
  20. ^ Duell & Van Den Broeke 2016.
  21. ^ NOAA Photo Library
  22. ^ Brooks 2004, p. 310.
  23. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 795.
  24. ^ Atteberry, Todd (2021-04-23). "Searching for the scars of the Tri-State Tornado of 1925 in southern Illinois". Witchery Art: A Gothic Cabinet of Curiosities and Mysteries. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  25. ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 194–8.
  26. ^ a b Grazulis 1984, p. A-38.
  27. ^ a b c d "Tornadoes of March 18, 1925". Louisville, KY Weather Forecast Office. Louisville, Kentucky: National Weather Service. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
  28. ^ a b c "March 18, 1925 Tornado Outbreak". Nashville, TN Weather Forecast Office. Nashville, Tennessee: National Weather Service. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  29. ^ a b US Department of Commerce, NOAA. "1925 Tornado". www.weather.gov. Retrieved 2024-04-29.
  30. ^ Johns 2012, pp. 7–9.
  31. ^ Partlow 2014, pp. 6–10.
  32. ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 195.
  33. ^ Mason 2011, p. 262.
  34. ^ Johns 2012, p. 1.
  35. ^ Partlow 2014, pp. 17–18.
  36. ^ Mason 2011, p. 137.
  37. ^ Mason 2011, p. 140.
  38. ^ Mason 2011, p. 278.
  39. ^ Mason 2011, p. 290.
  40. ^ Mason 2011, p. 294.
  41. ^ Mason 2011, p. 241.
  42. ^ "NOAA/NWS 1925 Tri-State Tornado Web Site—Tornado Track". NWS Paducah, KY. Archived from the original on 2015-03-21. Retrieved 2013-04-01.

Sources

[edit]
[edit]
Preceded by Costliest U.S. tornadoes on Record
March 18, 1925 		Succeeded by
Retrieved from "http://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Tri-State_tornado_outbreak&oldid=1263592127"