Jump to content

Rohingya conflict

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Rohingya conflict
Part of the Myanmar conflict

Map of Rakhine State with Buthidaung and Maungdaw Townships highlighted in red
DateCommunal violence: 1942–present
Insurgency: 1947–present
Location
Northern Rakhine State;[2]
Bangladesh–Myanmar border
Status

Ongoing

Belligerents
 British Burma
(1947–1948)
Union of Burma
(1948–1962)
 Republic of the Union of Myanmar (since 2011)
Arakan Army (since 2016)
Commanders and leaders
Former:

Ataullah abu Ammar Jununi[5][6]

Former:
  • Mir Kassem (POW)
  • (1947–1952)
  • Abdul Latif
  • (1947–1961)
  • Annul Jauli
  • (1947–1961)
  • Moulvi Jafar Kawal
  • (1947–1974)
  • Muhammad Jafar Habib (1972–1982)
  • Muhammad Yunus (1974–2001)
  • Muhammad Zakaria (1982–2001)[7]
  • Nurul Islam (1974–2001)
Units involved

Tatmadaw

Rohingya National Army (1998–2001)[1][10] Arakan Army
Strength
  • 15,000–20,000 soldiers[11]
  • ~1,000 policemen[12]
Previous totals:
  • 1,100 (1947–1950)[13]

Unknown

Previous totals:
  • 2,000–5,000 (1947–1950)
  • 2,000 (1952)
  • 170 (2002)
  • 500–600 (2016–2017)
  • 200 (2018)
38,000+ (self-claimed February 2024)
15,000+ (estimated February 2024)
Casualties and losses
2016–2019:
109 killed[b]		 2016–2017:
475 killed[c]		 Unknown
Part of a series on
Rohingya people
Category Commons

The Rohingya conflict is an ongoing conflict in the northern part of Rakhine State, Myanmar (formerly known as Arakan, Burma),[37] characterised by sectarian violence between the Rohingya Muslim and Rakhine Buddhist communities, a military crackdown on Rohingya civilians by Myanmar's security forces,[38][39][40] and militant attacks by Rohingya insurgents in Buthidaung, Maungdaw, and Rathedaung Townships, which border Bangladesh.[41][42][22]

The conflict arises chiefly from the religious and social differentiation between the Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims. During the Burma campaign in World War II, Rohingya Muslims, who were allied with the British and promised a Muslim state in return, fought against local Rakhine Buddhists, who were allied with the Japanese. Following independence in 1948, the newly formed union government of the predominantly Buddhist country denied citizenship to the Rohingyas, subjecting them to extensive systematic discrimination in the country. This has widely been compared to apartheid[43][44][45][46] by many international academics, analysts, and political figures, including Desmond Tutu, a famous South African anti-apartheid activist.[47]

Following the independence of Myanmar, Rohingya mujahideen fought government forces in an attempt to have the mostly Rohingya populated region around the Mayu peninsula in northern Arakan (present-day Rahkine State) gain autonomy or secede, so it could be annexed by Pakistan's East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh).[48] By the end of the 1950s, the mujahideen had lost most of its momentum and support, and by 1961 most of their fighters had surrendered to government forces.[49]

In the 1970s, Rohingya separatist movements emerged from remnants of the mujahideen, and the fighting culminated with the Burmese government launching a massive military operation named Operation Dragon King in 1978 to expel so-called "foreigners".[50] In the 1990s, the well-armed Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO) was the main perpetrator of attacks on Burmese authorities near the Bangladesh–Myanmar border.[51] The Burmese government responded militarily with Operation Clean and Beautiful Nation, but failed to disarm the RSO.[52][53]

In October 2016, Burmese border posts along the Bangladesh–Myanmar border were attacked by a new insurgent group, Harakah al-Yaqin, resulting in the deaths of at least 40 combatants.[41][42][54] It was the first major resurgence of the conflict since 2001.[1] Violence erupted again in November 2016, bringing the 2016 death toll to 134,[21] and again on 25 August 2017, when the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (formerly Harakah al-Yaqin) launched coordinated attacks on 24 police posts and an army base that left 71 dead.[22][55][56]

A subsequent military crackdown by Myanmar prompted the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) to investigate the matter and release a report on 11 October 2017 detailing the Burmese military's "systematic process" of driving hundreds of thousands of Rohingyas from Myanmar "through repeated acts of humiliation and violence".[57][58][59][60]

Background

[edit]
Further information: Rohingya people and Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar

The Rohingya people are an ethnic minority that live mainly in the northern region of Myanmar's Rakhine State (formerly Arakan) and have been described as one of the world's most persecuted minorities.[61][62][63] They describe themselves as descendants of Arab traders who settled in the region many generations ago.[61] However, French scholar Jacques Leider has stated that "the forefathers of the overwhelming majority of Muslims in Rakhine have migrated from Bengal to Rakhine ... their descendants and the Muslims as whole had in fact been rather uncontroversially referred to as 'Bengalis' until the early 1990s", and that they were also referred to as "Chittagonians" during the British colonial period.[64] Others such as Chris Lewa and Andrew Selth have identified the group as ethnically related to the Bengalis of southern Bangladesh while anthropologist Christina Fink uses Rohingya not as an ethnic identifier but as a political one.[e]

With the Japanese invasion and withdrawal of the British administration, tensions in Arakan before the war erupted. The war caused inter-communal conflicts between the Arakanese Muslims and Buddhists. Muslims fled from Japanese-controlled and Buddhist-majority regions to Muslim-dominated northern Arakan with many being killed. In return, a "reverse ethnic cleansing" was carried out. The Muslim attacks caused the Buddhists to flee to southern Arakan. Attacks by Muslim villagers on Buddhists also caused reprisals. With the consolidation of their position throughout northern Arakan, the Rohingyas retaliated against Japanese collaborators, particularly Buddhists. Though unofficial, specific undertaking were made to Arakanese Muslims after World War II. V Force officers like Andrew Irwin expressed enthusiasm to award Muslims for loyalty. Rohingya leaders believed that the British had promised them a "Muslim National Area" in present-day Maungdaw District. They were also apprehensive of a future Buddhist-dominated government. In 1946, the leaders made calls for annexation of the territory by Pakistan. Some also called for an independent state. The requests to the British government were however ignored.[65][66][67]

After the colonial period, the first mass exodus from what was then East Pakistan took place towards the 1970s.[68] In the 1950s, a "political and militant movement" rose to create "an autonomous Muslim zone", and the militants used Rohingya to describe themselves, marking the "modern origins" of the term.[69] The persecution of Rohingyas in Myanmar dates back to the 1970s.[70] The term "Rohingya" has gained currency since 1990s after "the second exodus" of "a quarter-million people from Bangladesh to Rakhine" in the early 1990s.[68]

The Rohingya were denied citizenship in 1982 by the government of Myanmar, which sees them as illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.[61] Since then, Rohingyas have regularly been made the target of persecution by the government and nationalist Buddhists.[71]

Mujahideen (1947–1954)

[edit]

Early insurgency

[edit]

In May 1946, Muslim leaders from Arakan met with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, and asked for the formal annexation of two townships in the Mayu region, Buthidaung and Maungdaw, into East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh).[citation needed] Two months later, the North Arakan Muslim League was founded in Akyab (present-day Sittwe, capital of Rakhine State), which also asked Jinnah to annex the region.[citation needed] Jinnah refused, saying he could not interfere with Burma's internal matters. After Jinnah's refusal, proposals were made by Muslims in Arakan to the newly formed post-independence government of Burma, asking for the concession of the two townships to Pakistan. These proposals were rejected by Burma's parliament.[72]

Local mujahideen totalling an estimated 2,000 to 5,000 fighters were subsequently formed to fight against the Burmese government.[13][73] Led by Mir Kassem, the mujahideen began targeting government soldiers stationed in the region and capturing territory, in the process driving out local ethnic Rakhine communities from their villages, some of whom fled to East Bengal.[citation needed]

In November 1948, martial law was declared in the region, and the 5th Battalion of the Burma Rifles and the 2nd Chin Battalion were sent to liberate the area. By June 1949, the Burmese government's control over the region was reduced to the city of Akyab, whilst the mujahideen had possession of nearly all of northern Arakan. After several months of fighting, Burmese forces were able to push the mujahideen back into the jungles of the Mayu region, near the country's western border.[citation needed]

In 1950, the Pakistani government warned its counterparts in Burma about their treatment of Muslims in Arakan. Burmese Prime Minister U Nu immediately sent a Muslim diplomat, Pe Khin, to negotiate a memorandum of understanding so that Pakistan would cease assisting the mujahideen. Kassem was arrested by Pakistani authorities in 1954, and many of his followers subsequently surrendered to the government.[74]

The post-independence government accused the mujahideen of encouraging the illegal immigration of thousands of Bengalis from East Bengal into Arakan during their rule of the area, a claim that has been highly disputed over the decades, as it brings into question the legitimacy of the Rohingya as natives of Arakan.[49]

Military operations against the mujahideen

[edit]

Between 1950 and 1954, the Burma Army launched several military operations against the remaining mujahideen in northern Arakan.[75] The first military operation was launched in March 1950, followed by a second named Operation Mayu in October 1952. Several mujahideen leaders agreed to disarm and surrender to government forces following the successful operations.[citation needed]

A Rohingya mujahid surrenders his weapon to Brigadier-General Aung Gyi, 4 July 1961

In the latter half of 1954, the mujahideen again began attacking local authorities and soldiers stationed around Maungdaw, Buthidaung and Rathedaung. Hundreds of ethnic Rakhine Buddhists began hunger strikes in Rangoon (present-day Yangon) in protest of the attacks and to encourage the government to respond.[49] The government subsequently launched Operation Monsoon in October 1954.[citation needed]

Decline of the mujahideen

[edit]

Operation Monsoon was the culmination of the government's efforts to quell the mujahideen insurgency. It decisively reduced the mujahideen's presence in the region, as the Tatmadaw captured the mujahideen's main strongholds and killed several of their leaders.[13]

A group of 150 mujahideen led by Shore Maluk and Zurah surrendered to government forces in 1957. An additional 214 mujahideen under the leadership of al-Rashid disarmed and surrendered to government forces on 7 November 1957.[citation needed]

By the end of the 1950s, the mujahideen had lost most of their momentum. The Burmese government began implementing various policies aimed at reconciliation in Arakan. The governments of Burma and Pakistan began negotiating on how to deal with the mujahideen at their border, and on 1 May 1961 the Mayu Frontier District was established in Arakan to appease the Rohingya.[76]

On 4 July 1961, 290 mujahideen in southern Maungdaw Township surrendered their arms in front of Brigadier-General Aung Gyi, who was Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Burma Army at the time.[77] On 15 November 1961, a few more mujahideen surrendered to Aung Gyi in Buthidaung.[49] However, dozens of mujahideen remained under the command of Moulvi Jafar Kawal, 40 under Abdul Latif, and 80 under Annul Jauli; all these groups lacked local support and unity, which led them to become rice smugglers around the end of the 1960s.[citation needed]

Rohingya separatist movements (1972–2001)

[edit]

Separatist groups in the 1970s and 1980s

[edit]

Under Ne Win's military rule, Burmese authorities turned increasingly hostile towards the Rohingyas and implemented policies to exclude them from having citizenship.[78] On 26 April 1964, the Rohingya Independence Front (RIF) was established with the goal of creating an autonomous Muslim zone for the Rohingya. The name of the group was changed to the Rohingya Independence Army (RIA) in 1969 and then to the Rohingya Patriotic Front (RPF) on 12 September 1973.[79] In June 1974, the RPF was reorganised with Muhammad Jafar Habib as self-appointed president, Nurul Islam, a Rangoon-educated lawyer, as vice-president, and Muhammad Yunus, a medical doctor, as secretary general.[citation needed] The RPF had around 70 fighters.[1]

Moulvi Jafar Kawal founded the Rohingya Liberation Party (RLP) on 15 July 1972, after mobilising various former mujahideen factions under his command. Kawal appointed himself chairman of the party, Abdul Latif as vice-chairman and minister of military affairs, and Muhammad Jafar Habib, a graduate of Rangoon University, as secretary general. Their strength increased from 200 fighters at their foundation to 500 by 1974. The RLP was largely based in the jungles near Buthidaung and was armed with weapons smuggled from Bangladesh. After a massive military operation by the Tatmadaw in July 1974, Kawal and most of his men fled across the border into Bangladesh.[80]

In February 1978, government forces began a massive military operation named Operation Nagamin (Operation Dragon King) in northern Arakan, with the official focus of expelling so-called "foreigners" from the area prior to a national census.[81] The primary objective of the Tatmadaw during the operation was to force RPF insurgents and sympathisers out of Arakan. As the operation extended farther northwest, hundreds of thousands of Rohingyas crossed the border seeking refuge in Bangladesh.[1][82][83]

Later, in a meeting between Burma's then-president Ne Win and Bangladesh's then-president Ziaur Rahman, Ziaur threatened to provide arms and training to the Rohingya refugees if Burma did not repatriate them.[84] Ne Win subsequently agreed to repatriate the Rohingya refugees under the supervision of the UNHCR, and accepted the Rohingyas as "lawful residents of Burma".[85]

In 1982, radical elements broke away from the Rohingya Patriotic Front (RPF) and formed the Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO).[1] It was led by Muhammad Yunus, the former secretary general of the RPF. The RSO became the most influential and extreme faction amongst Rohingya insurgent groups by basing itself on religious grounds. It gained support from various Islamist groups, such as Jamaat-e-Islami, Hizb-e-Islami, Hizb-ul-Mujahideen, Angkatan Belia Islam sa-Malaysia and the Islamic Youth Organisation of Malaysia.[1][83]

The Burmese Citizenship Law was introduced on 15 October 1982, and with the exception of the Kaman people, Muslims in the country were legally unrecognised and denied Burmese citizenship.[86]

In 1986, the RPF merged with a faction of the RSO led by the former vice-president of the RPF, Nurul Islam, and became the Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front (ARIF).[87][88]

Activity and expansions in the 1990s

[edit]

In the early 1990s, the military camps of the RSO were located in the Cox's Bazar District in southern Bangladesh. RSO possessed a significant arsenal of light machine-guns, AK-47 assault rifles, RPG-2 rocket launchers, claymore mines and explosives, according to a field report conducted by correspondent Bertil Lintner in 1991.[51] The Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front (ARIF) was mostly armed with British manufactured 9mm Sterling L2A3 sub-machine guns, M-16 assault rifles and .303 rifles.[51]

The military expansion of the RSO resulted in the government of Myanmar launching a massive counter-offensive named Operation Pyi Thaya (Operation Clean and Beautiful Nation) to expel RSO insurgents along the Bangladesh–Myanmar border. In December 1991, Burmese soldiers crossed the border and accidentally attacked a Bangladeshi military outpost, causing a strain in Bangladeshi-Myanmar relations. By April 1992, more than 250,000 Rohingya civilians had been forced out of northern Rakhine State as a result of the increased military operations in the area.[1]

In April 1994, around 120 RSO insurgents entered Maungdaw Township in Myanmar by crossing the Naf River which marks the border between Bangladesh and Myanmar. On 28 April 1994, nine out of twelve bombs planted in different areas in Maungdaw by RSO insurgents exploded, damaging a fire engine and a few buildings, and seriously wounding four civilians.[89]

On 28 October 1998, the armed wing of the RSO and ARIF and formed the Arakan Rohingya National Organisation (ARNO), operating in-exile in Cox's Bazar.[1] The Rohingya National Army (RNA) was established as its armed wing.

After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Tatmadaw began sharing military intelligence with the United States regarding Rohingya insurgent activity. A report given by the Tatmadaw to the CIA alleged that ARNO had 170 fighters in 2002, and that ARNO leaders met with members of Al-Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan. The report further claimed that 90 ARNO members were sent to Afghanistan and Libya for training in guerrilla warfare. None of the claims in the report have been independently verified and were largely disregarded by the United States.[90]

The Islamic extremist organisations Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami[91] and Harkat-ul-Ansar[92] also claimed to have branches in Myanmar.

ARSA insurgency (2016–present)

[edit]
Main article: Conflict in Rakhine State (2016–present)
Members of the Myanmar Police Force patrolling in Maungdaw in September 2017.

On 9 October 2016, hundreds of unidentified insurgents attacked three Burmese border posts along Myanmar's border with Bangladesh.[93] According to government officials in the mainly Rohingya border town of Maungdaw, the attackers brandished knives, machetes and homemade slingshots that fired metal bolts. Nine border officers were killed in the attack,[41] and 48 guns, 6,624 bullets, 47 bayonets and 164 bullet cartridges were looted by the insurgents.[94] On 11 October 2016, four soldiers were killed on the third day of fighting.[42] Following the attacks, reports emerged of several human rights violations perpetrated by Burmese security forces in their crackdown on suspected Rohingya insurgents.[95]

Government officials in Rakhine State originally blamed the RSO, an Islamist insurgent group mainly active in the 1980s and 1990s, for the attacks.[96] However, on 17 October 2016, a group calling itself Harakah al-Yaqin (later changed to the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army or ARSA) claimed responsibility.[97] In the following days, six other groups released statements, all citing the same leader.[98]

The Myanmar Army announced on 15 November 2016 that 69 Rohingya insurgents and 17 security forces (10 policemen, 7 soldiers) had been killed in recent clashes in northern Rakhine State, bringing the death toll to 134 (102 insurgents and 32 security forces). It was also announced that 234 people suspected of being connected to the attack were arrested.[21][99] Some of them will later be sentenced to death for their involvement in 9 October's attacks.[100][needs update]

Nearly two dozen prominent human rights activists, including Malala Yousafzai, Archbishop Desmond Tutu and Richard Branson, called on the United Nations Security Council to intervene and end the "ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity" being perpetrated in northern Rakhine State.[101]

A police document obtained by Reuters in March 2017 listed 423 Rohingyas detained by the police since 9 October 2016, 13 of whom were children, the youngest being ten years old. Two police captains in Maungdaw verified the document and justified the arrests, with one of them saying, "We the police have to arrest those who collaborated with the attackers, children or not, but the court will decide if they are guilty; we are not the ones who decide." Myanmar police also claimed that the children had confessed to their alleged crimes during interrogations, and that they were not beaten or pressured during questioning. The average age of those detained is 34, the youngest is 10, and the oldest is 75.[102][103]

In early August 2017, the Burmese military resumed "clearance operations" in northern Rakhine State, worsening the humanitarian crisis in the country, according to a report by the Office of the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) released on 11 October 2017. The report, titled the Mission report of OHCHR rapid response mission to Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, detailed the "systematic process" pursued by the Burmese military in driving out the Rohingya population from the country, as well as various human rights violations perpetrated by military personnel.[57][104]

During the early hours of 25 August 2017, up to 150 insurgents launched coordinated attacks on 24 police posts and the 552nd Light Infantry Battalion army base in Rakhine State, leaving 71 dead (12 security personnel and 59 insurgents).[22][55][56] The Tatmadaw stated on 1 September 2017 that the death toll from fighting in the area had risen to 370 insurgents, 13 security personnel, two government officials and 14 civilians.[23] The Tatmadaw also estimated the size of ARSA to be around 600 fighters at this time.[105]

A one-month unilateral ceasefire was declared by ARSA on 9 September 2017, in an attempt to allow aid groups and humanitarian workers safe access into northern Rakhine State.[106][107][108] In a statement, the group urged the government to lay down their arms and agree to their ceasefire, which would have been in effect from 10 September until 9 October (the one-year anniversary of the first attacks on Burmese security forces by ARSA). The government rejected the ceasefire, with Zaw Htay, the spokesperson for the State Counselor's office, stating, "We have no policy to negotiate with terrorists."[109] By this time, the Tatmadaw estimated ARSA's numbers to have dwindled to below 500.[110]

At the end of October 2017, the UN estimated that over 600,000 Rohingya refugees had fled to Bangladesh since armed clashes resumed two months earlier.[111][112] The Bangladeshi ambassador to the UN described the situation as "untenable" for his country, which planned to sterilise Rohingya women to avoid a population explosion[113] and which also planned on seeking, in cooperation with the Burmese authorities, to repatriate some of the Rohingya refugees in Rakhine State.[114] However, much of the agricultural land abandoned by Rohingya refugees have been seized by the government,[115] and a vast majority of them do not have any official documents certifying that they have lived in the Rakhine State prior to the violence, due to their statelessness.

The Tatmadaw estimated that ARSA only had around 200 fighters left by January 2018.[116][117]

On 22 May 2018, Amnesty International released a report claiming it had evidence that ARSA rounded up and killed as many as 99 Hindu civilians on 25 August 2017, the same day that ARSA launched a massive attack against Myanmar's security forces.[118][119]

Rakhine offensive and alliances with the Tatmadaw (2023–present)

[edit]
Military situation in Myanmar as of 28 May 2024
Map of gains as of 7 June 2024 made by the Arakan Army since 2023
Main article: Rakhine offensive (2023–present)
This section is an excerpt from Rakhine offensive (2023–present) § Central and southern Rakhine offensives.[edit]

On 16 February, following clashes with the Arakan Army, junta forces abandoned the town of Ma Ei, destroying a bridge leading to the town as they left. Arakan Army forces occupied the town soon after and began landmine clearance operations.[120][121]

On 24 March, the Arakan Army began an offensive on Ann Township concurrently with their offensive on Sittwe, launching attacks on Ann, the headquarters of the junta's Western Command. North of Ann, the Arakan Army launched attacks on neighbouring Ngape Township in Magway Region. Ann's location is strategically important as the link between Rakhine and Magway via the Minbu-Ann road through the Arakan Mountains and as a gateway preventing AA from attacking southern Rakhine State.[122] On 27 March, Arakan Army forces seized a camp near Ge Laung village, Ann Township.[123] On 2 April, the Arakan Army announced it had captured a portion of the Ann-Minbu Highway, cutting off Ann from neighboring Padein.[124] During these offensives, on 10 April, the Arakan Army rebranded itself as the "Arakha Army" to represent all people living in Rakhine State.[125] On 27 April, the Arakan Army captured Taw Hein Taung base in the hilltops of Ann township.[126] On 26 June, locals reported that the fighting had moved closer to the town proper since the Taw Hein Taung base had fallen, prompting many to try and flee the fighting.[127]

On 13 April, the Arakan Army began clashing with junta forces along the Thandwe-Taungup highway. Intense clashes broke out on 22 April around the Tha Htay hydropower plant in northern Thandwe Township, reportedly leading to the deaths of "dozens" of junta soldiers.[128] On 25 April, the Arakan Army began clashing with junta forces near the Ngapali Beach.[126] On 7 June, clashes broke out between the Arakan Army and junta forces north of Thandwe, with fighting inching steadily closer to the city over the following days.[129] On 26 June, the Arakan Army seized the headquarters of the junta's Battalion 566, forcing military troops to retreat to the town's airport and hotels inside the city. The Arakan Army announced they had secured the airport on 5 July.[130] Militia reinforcements brought by the regime from across Myanmar, as well as shelling from navy ships offshore, were unable to stop the Arakan Army's continued progress in its offensive.[130] The Arakan Army claims to have killed over 400 troops during its push to seize the city.[131] On 15 July, the Arakan Army took control of Thandwe Prison, a major junta strong point. In the following days, it successfully consolidated its control over the town, pushing out remaining junta forces.[132][133] On 7 August, the Arakan Army launched an attack against the Maung Shwe Lay Naval Base outside Thandwe.[134] By 30 August, the Arakan Army had successfully entered the base after clashes through the preceding weeks.[135] The naval base fell to the Arakan Army on 5 September.[134]

On 15 June, the Arakan Army launched an offensive to seize the town of Taungup. Heavy fighting broke out around Taungup University, where a junta artillery battalion is stationed, and clashes were reported in downtown areas as well.[136] Retaliatory junta airstrikes reportedly hit civilian areas.[136] Shelling from junta forces also damaged parts of the university.[137] On 18 June, the town's general administrator, as well as another town official, were arrested by the junta while trying to flee from the fighting to Yangon.[138] On 20 June, the Arakan Army ambushed a column of junta soldiers that had been sent from central Myanmar to reinforce the town, reportedly killing over 60 regime soldiers, including a captain.[139] On 23 June, two civilians were wounded after stepping on a landmine placed by junta forces.[140] Civilians were reportedly attempting to flee Taungup but were being turned back by junta forces.[141]

After a period of relative calm, conflict in Taungup resumed at the end of October, when the Arakan Army attacked a junta artillery position outside the town.[142] Fighting in Taungup continued throughout the next week following the base's fall, with the Arakan Army closing to within 10 km of the town.[143] By 14 November, reports indicated that fighting had moved into the town itself.[144]

On 9 August, the Arakan Army advanced into the state's southernmost township, Gwa Township. Clashes were reported around the Chinkwin Bridge and the town of Kyeintali.[141] On 14 August, the Arakan Army captured the town.[145] Junta forces destroyed a bridge near the town during their retreat.[146] Following their capture of Kyeintali, the Arakan Army pushed further south to the village of Satthwa, where they were halted by junta troops. Retreating junta troops allegedly engaged in looting of local villages as they fled.[147] Reports indicated that junta troops in Gwa had been reinforced by formations drawn from Ayeyarwady Region. According to analysts, there were fears within the junta that Gwa falling to the Arakan Army could let fighting spread into Ayeyarwady, which has been largely conflict-free throughout the war.[148]

Narinjara News reported on 12 August that over the course of the offensive, junta forces had destroyed 22 bridges throughout the state in attempts to impede the Arakan Army's advances.[149]

On 14 December 2024, AA captured Taungup Township.[150]

Humanitarian crisis

[edit]
Further information: Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh
Internally displaced Rohingyas in Rakhine State, 14 December 2012.

An estimated 655,000 to 700,000 Rohingya people reportedly fled to Bangladesh between 25 August 2017 and December 2017, to avoid ethnic and religious persecution by Myanmar's security forces in their "clearance operations" against insurgents,[151][152][153] joining an additional 300,000 Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh who had arrived after fleeing earlier waves of communal violence.[154] The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) estimated on 31 July 2018 that 128,000 Rohingyas were internally displaced inside of Rakhine State.[27][28]

At the 73rd session of the United Nations General Assembly in late September 2018, Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina stated that her country was hosting at least 1.1 million Rohingya refugees, and asked international leaders to help support an "early, peaceful solution" to the humanitarian crisis.[155]

Seven Rohingya refugees were deported from India on 3 October 2018, following a decision by the Supreme Court of India to reject a petition to halt their deportation. The refugees had been held in prison since 2012 for illegally entering India, after they fled communal riots in Rakhine State.[156][157] The deportation went forward despite warnings by the United Nations, which cited inadequate conditions for repatriation.[158] There remains an estimated 18,000 Rohingya asylum seekers in India, most of whom were smuggled into the country illegally and made their way to cities with significant Muslim populations like Hyderabad and Jammu.[159]

Report by the OHCHR

[edit]

On 11 October 2017, the Office of the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) released a report titled the Mission report of OHCHR rapid response mission to Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, which detailed the Burmese military's "systematic process" of driving away hundreds of thousands of Rohingyas from Myanmar. The report noted that prior to the attacks on 25 August 2017 and the military crackdown that ensued, the military pursued a strategy to:[57][104]

  • have male Rohingyas between the ages of 15–40 years arrested and/or arbitrarily detained
  • have Rohingya political, cultural and religious figures arrested and/or arbitrarily detained
  • ensure that access to food, livelihoods and other means of conducting daily activities and life be taken away from Rohingya villagers
  • drive out Rohingya villagers en masse through repeated acts of humiliation and violence, such as [the] incitement of [sectarian] hatred, violence and killings
  • instill deep and widespread fear and trauma (physical, emotional and psychological) in Rohingyas, through acts of brutality; namely killings, disappearances, torture, and rape (and other forms of sexual violence)

War crimes and genocide

[edit]
Main article: Rohingya genocide

According to a March 2018 report by the ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights (APHR), 43,000 Rohingya parents have been "reported lost, [and] presumed dead" since the beginning of the military crackdown in August 2017.[160] An August 2018 study by Harvard University estimated that in the same period, 24,000 Rohingyas had been killed, 18,000 Rohingya women and girls had been raped, 116,000 Rohingyas had been beaten, and 36,000 Rohingyas had been victims of arson.[24] According to a BBC report in 2019, the government demolished entire Muslim Rohingya villages in Myanmar and replaced them by police barracks, government buildings and refugee relocation camps.[161]

On 23 January 2020, in what has become known as the Rohingya genocide case, The Gambia (representing the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) won a judgment against Myanmar at the International Court of Justice for provisional measure of protection because the respondent government was in default of its Genocide Convention obligations.[162]

Misleading images

[edit]

Misleading images have been used by both sides of the conflict, alongside claims of violence against civilians. Verifying the authenticity of images has become a challenge for researchers, due to media and travel restrictions imposed by Myanmar's government on Rakhine State.[163]

Following the August 2017 ARSA attacks and the subsequent crackdown by the military, photos were released by Burmese officials allegedly showing several Rohingyas setting fire to buildings in their own village. Government spokesman Zaw Htay tweeted a link to a government article about the photos, with the caption "Photos of Bengalis setting fire to their houses!" However, journalists later recognised two of the arsonists as Hindus from a nearby school building, prompting Htay to announce that the government would investigate the matter.[164][165]

In July 2018, the Tatmadaw's department of public relations released a propaganda publication titled "Myanmar Politics and the Tatmadaw: Part I", in which it contained photos purportedly showing the illegal immigration of Rohingyas during British rule and violence perpetrated by Rohingya villagers against ethnic Rakhine villagers. It was later revealed by Reuters that the photos had been captioned misleadingly; a photo that supposedly showed a Rohingya man with the corpses of slain Rakhine locals was actually a photo taken during the Bangladesh Liberation War of a man recovering the corpses of massacred Bengalis, and a photo that claimed to show the entry of hundreds of "Bengali intruders" (i.e. Rohingyas) into Rakhine State was in fact an award-winning photo of Hutu refugees taken in 1996.[166][167] The Burmese military later apologised on 3 September 2018 for misusing the photos, saying in a statement, "We sincerely apologize to the readers and the owners of the photographs for the mistake."[168]

Facebook controversies

[edit]

Following the ARSA attacks in August 2017, Facebook (i.e. Meta) received heavy criticism for its handling of anti-Rohingya hate speech on its platform. In March 2018, a U.N. investigator accused Facebook of allowing its platform to be used to incite violence against the Rohingya, and said that the site had "turned into a beast". An investigation by Reuters in August 2018 found that over a thousand derogatory posts and comments against Rohingyas and other Muslims were viewable on Facebook, despite the company's CEO, Mark Zuckerberg, pledging to U.S. senators four months prior to hire more Burmese language reviewers to combat the problem.[169]

A New York Times report released in October 2018 stated that starting around 2013, the Burmese military began an online campaign against the Rohingya, creating up to 700 throw-away accounts and fake news pages to spread disinformation and criticise posts not in line with the military's stances on issues. Facebook's cybersecurity policy head called the military's actions "clear and deliberate attempts to covertly spread propaganda". In August 2018, Facebook permanently removed several of the accounts, which included fake fan pages of celebrities and national icons.[170]

The report also stated that the military's intelligence arm began a campaign in 2017 to incite civil discord between Buddhists and Muslims, sending false warnings of future attacks via Facebook Messenger, purporting to be from news sites and celebrity fan pages. Buddhist groups were reportedly told to be wary of future "jihadist attacks", whilst Muslim groups were told that anti-Muslim protests were being organised by nationalist Buddhist monks.[170]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Pakistan controlled Bangladesh, which borders Myanmar to the northwest, from 1947 to 1971.
  2. ^ As of 2019: 54 soldiers,[14][15][16][17][18] 54 policemen,[19][20][15] and 1 immigration officer.[21][22]
  3. ^ The Myanmar Army claims to have killed only insurgents in their operations; their numbers have not been independently verified.[21][23]
  4. ^ See[29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36]
  5. ^ See (Leider 2013) for the academic opinion on the historical usage of the term by several academics and authors. (Leider 2013: 215–216): Lewa in 2002 wrote that "the Rohingya Muslims are ethnically and religiously related to the Chittagonians of southern Bangladesh."
    Selth in 2003: "These are Bengali Muslims who live in Arakan State ... Most Rohingyas arrived with the British colonialists in the 19th and 20th centuries."
    (Leider 2013: 216) citing Christina Fink: "small armed group of Muslims generally known as Rohingya".

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Bangladesh Extremist Islamist Consolidation". by Bertil Lintner. Archived from the original on 22 June 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  2. ^ Myint, Moe (24 October 2017). "Rakhine Crisis in Numbers". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 27 October 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
  3. ^ a b "New Rakhine Police Chief Appointed". irrawaddy.com. 6 September 2017. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 13 September 2017.
  4. ^ "Myanmar military denies atrocities against Rohingya, replaces general". Reuters. 13 November 2017. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2017.
  5. ^ Millar, Paul (16 February 2017). "Sizing up the shadowy leader of the Rakhine State insurgency". Southeast Asia Globe Magazine. Archived from the original on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
  6. ^ J, Jacob (15 December 2016). "Rohingya militants in Rakhine have Saudi, Pakistan links, think tank says". Archived from the original on 26 August 2017. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
  7. ^ "Arakan Rohingya National Organisation – Myanmar/Bangladesh". trackingterrorism.org. Archived from the original on 5 May 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
  8. ^ a b Lewis, Simon; Siddiqui, Zeba; Baldwin, Clare; Andrew R.C., Marshall (26 June 2018). "How Myanmar's shock troops led the assault that expelled the Rohingya". Reuters. Archived from the original on 26 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  9. ^ Hunt, Katie. "Myanmar Air Force helicopters fire on armed villagers in Rakhine state". CNN. Archived from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2016.
  10. ^ "PRESS RELEASE: Rohingya National Army (RNA) successfully raided a Burma Army Camp 30 miles from north ..." rohingya.org. 28 May 2001. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  11. ^ "An ethnic militia with daring tactics is humiliating Myanmar's army". The Economist. 16 April 2020. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  12. ^ Khine, Min Aung; Ko Ko, Thet (23 August 2018). "Western Border on High Alert as ARSA Attack Anniversary Nears". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 23 August 2018. Retrieved 23 August 2018.
  13. ^ a b c Yegar, Moshe (2002). Between Integration and Secession: The Muslim Communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar. Lexington Books. pp. 37, 30, 44. ISBN 978-0-7391-0356-2. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  14. ^ "One officer and 20 soldiers killed in AA clash". Mizzima. 10 April 2019. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  15. ^ a b Soe, Aung Naing (10 March 2019). "Myanmar says 9 police killed in Arakan Army attack". AP News. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  16. ^ "3 killed in rocket attack on army tugboat in western Myanmar". Xinhua News Agency. 23 June 2019. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  17. ^ Myint, Moe (8 July 2019). "Two Dead in Rakhine Border Post Attack". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  18. ^ Myint, Moe (22 July 2019). "Army Officer, 2 Navy Personnel Killed in AA Rocket Attack in Rakhine". The Irrawaddy. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  19. ^ "Myanmar policeman shot dead in northern Rakhine state". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse (AFP). 23 December 2018. Archived from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 23 December 2018.
  20. ^ "13 policemen die in Rakhine rebel attacks". The Straits Times. 5 January 2019. Archived from the original on 5 January 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
  21. ^ a b c d Slodkowski, Antoni (15 November 2016). "Myanmar army says 86 killed in fighting in northwest". Reuters India. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
  22. ^ a b c d "Myanmar tensions: Dozens dead in Rakhine militant attack". BBC News. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  23. ^ a b "Nearly 400 die as Myanmar army steps up crackdown on Rohingya militants". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  24. ^ a b Habib, Mohshin; Jubb, Christine; Ahmad, Salahuddin; Rahman, Masudur; Pallard, Henri (18 July 2018). "Forced migration of Rohingya: the untold experience". Ontario International Development Agency, Canada. Archived from the original on 17 July 2019. Retrieved 26 July 2019 – via National Library of Australia.
  25. ^ "Former UN chief says Bangladesh cannot continue hosting Rohingya". Al Jazeera. 10 July 2019. Archived from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
  26. ^ "Around 24,000 Rohingya Muslims killed by Myanmar army, 18,000 raped: report". Daily Sabah. 19 August 2018. Archived from the original on 5 August 2019. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
  27. ^ a b "Myanmar: IDP Sites in Rakhine State (as of 31 July 2018)" (PDF). OCHA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
  28. ^ a b "Rohingya Crisis in Myanmar". Global Conflict Tracker. Archived from the original on 11 October 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
  29. ^ "Bangladesh is now home to almost 1 million Rohingya refugees". The Washington Post. 25 October 2017. Archived from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
  30. ^ "Pope apologizes to Rohingya refugees for 'indifference of the world'". CBC News. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
  31. ^ "Pope Francis Says 'Rohingya' During Emotional Encounter With Refugees". Time. Archived from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
  32. ^ "Pope uses term Rohingya during Asia trip". BBC News. 1 December 2017. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
  33. ^ "Myanmar bars U.N. rights investigator before visit". Reuters. 2017. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  34. ^ "China and Russia oppose UN resolution on Rohingya". The Guardian. 24 December 2017. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  35. ^ "Myanmar Military Investigating a Mass Grave in Rakhine". Time. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  36. ^ "100,000 Rohingya on first repatriation list | Dhaka Tribune". dhakatribune.com. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  37. ^ Minar, Sarwar J.; Halim, Abdul (2020). "The Rohingyas of Rakhine State: Social Evolution and History in the Light of Ethnic Nationalism". Social Evolution & History. 19 (2). arXiv:2106.02945. doi:10.30884/seh/2020.02.06. ISSN 1681-4363. S2CID 229667451.
  38. ^ "Rohingya crisis: Satellite images of Myanmar village burning". BBC News. 14 September 2017. Archived from the original on 30 April 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  39. ^ "A state-led massacre triggers an exodus of Rohingyas from Myanmar". The Economist. 9 September 2017. Archived from the original on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
  40. ^ Neuman, Scott (13 September 2017). "Aung San Suu Kyi To Skip U.N. Meeting As Criticism Over Rohingya Crisis Grows". NPR. Archived from the original on 13 September 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  41. ^ a b c "Myanmar policemen killed in Rakhine border attack". BBC News. 9 October 2016. Archived from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
  42. ^ a b c "Rakhine unrest leaves four Myanmar soldiers dead". BBC News. 12 October 2016. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
  43. ^ Ibrahim, Azeem (fellow at Mansfield College, Oxford, and 2009 Yale World Fellow), "War of Words: What's in the Name 'Rohingya'?", Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine 16 June 2016 Yale Online, Yale University, 21 September 2017
  44. ^ "Aung San Suu Kyi’s Ultimate Test", Archived 22 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Sullivan, Dan, 19 January 2017, Harvard International Review, Harvard University. Retrieved 21 September 2017
  45. ^ Emanuel Stoakes. "Myanmar's Rohingya Apartheid". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
  46. ^ Kristof, Nicholas (28 May 2014). "Myanmar's Appalling Apartheid". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 September 2017. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
  47. ^ Tutu, Desmond, former Archbishop of Cape Town, South Africa, Nobel Peace Prize (anti-apartheid and national-reconciliation leader), "Tutu: The Slow Genocide Against the Rohingya", Archived 22 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine 19 January 2017, Newsweek, citing "Burmese apartheid" reference in 1978 Far Eastern Economic Review at the Oslo Conference on Rohingyas; also online at: Desmond Tutu Foundation USA Archived 22 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 21 September 2017
  48. ^ Yegar, Moshe (1972). Muslims of Burma. Wiesbaden: Verlag Otto Harrassowitz. p. 96.
  49. ^ a b c d Yegar, Moshe (1972). Muslims of Burma. pp. 98–101.
  50. ^ Escobar, Pepe (October 2001). "Asia Times: Jihad: The ultimate thermonuclear bomb". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 24 January 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  51. ^ a b c Lintner, Bertil (19 October 1991). Tension Mounts in Arakan State. This news-story was based on interview with Rohingyas and others in the Cox's Bazar area and at the Rohingya military camps in 1991: Jane's Defence Weekly.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  52. ^ "Bangladesh: The Plight of the Rohingya". Pulitzer Center. 18 September 2012. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  53. ^ Hodal, Kate (20 December 2012). "Trapped inside Burma's refugee camps, the Rohingya people call for recognition". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  54. ^ "Myanmar Army Evacuates Villagers, Teachers From Hostilities in Maungdaw". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 17 October 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
  55. ^ a b Htusan, Esther (25 August 2017). "Myanmar: 71 die in militant attacks on police, border posts". AP News. Archived from the original on 26 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  56. ^ a b Lone, Wa; Slodkowski, Antoni (24 August 2017). "At least 12 dead in Muslim insurgent attacks in northwest Myanmar". Reuters. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  57. ^ a b c Mission report of OHCHR rapid response mission to Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh, 13–24 September 2017, Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine released 11 October 2017, U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations. Retrieved 12 October 2017
  58. ^ Safi, Michael (18 September 2018). "'Tied to trees and raped': UN report details Rohingya horrors". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
  59. ^ Kirby, Jen (18 September 2018). "New UN report documents evidence of mass atrocities in Myanmar against the Rohingya". Vox. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
  60. ^ Cumming-Bruce, Nick (18 September 2018). "Myanmar's 'Gravest Crimes' Against Rohingya Demand Action, U.N. Says". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 September 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
  61. ^ a b c Kevin Ponniah (5 December 2016). "Who will help Myanmar's Rohingya?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 18 June 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
  62. ^ Matt Broomfield (10 December 2016). "UN calls on Burma's Aung San Suu Kyi to halt 'ethnic cleansing' of Rohingya Muslims". The Independent. Archived from the original on 11 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
  63. ^ "New wave of destruction sees 1,250 houses destroyed in Myanmar's Rohingya villages". International Business Times. 21 November 2016. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
  64. ^ Leider, Jacques (2013). Rohingya: the name, the movement and the quest for identity. Myanmar Egress and the Myanmar Peace Center. pp. 210–211.[dead link‍]
  65. ^ Christie, Clive J. (1998). A Modern History of Southeast Asia: Decolonization, Nationalism and Separatism. I.B. Tauris. pp. 164, 165–167. ISBN 9781860643545.
  66. ^ Yegar, Moshe (2002). Between Integration and Secession: The Muslim Communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar. Lexington Books. pp. 33–35. ISBN 9780739103562.
  67. ^ Chan (Kanda University of International Studies), Aye (Autumn 2005). "The Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan (Rakhine) State of Burma (Myanmar)" (PDF). SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research. 3 (2): 396–420. ISSN 1479-8484. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
  68. ^ a b Leider 2013: 212–213
  69. ^ Leider 2013: 208
  70. ^ "Rohingya Refugees Seek to Return Home to Myanmar". Voice of America. 30 November 2016. Archived from the original on 2 December 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  71. ^ "Myanmar seeking ethnic cleansing, says UN official as Rohingya flee persecution". The Guardian. 24 November 2016. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
  72. ^ Hugh Tinker, The Union of Burma: A Study of the First Year of Independence, (London, New York, and Toronto: Oxford University Press) 1957, p. 357.
  73. ^ Aye Chan (3 June 2011). On the Mujahid Rebellion in Arakan read in the International Conference of Southeast Asian Studies at Pusan University of Foreign Studies, Republic of Korea.
  74. ^ U Nu, U Nu: Saturday's Son, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press) 1975, p. 272.
  75. ^ Yegar, Moshe (2002). "Between integration and secession: The Muslim communities of the Southern Philippines, Southern Thailand, and Western Burma/Myanmar". Lanham. Lexington Books. pp. 44–45. ISBN 0739103563. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  76. ^ "Mr Sultan Mahmud and Statehood of Arakan | The Stateless Rohingya". Thestateless.com. Archived from the original on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  77. ^ Khit Yay Tatmaw Journal. Yangon: Burma Army. 18 July 1961. p. 5.
  78. ^ "Bangladesh: The Plight of the Rohingya". Pulitzer Center.
  79. ^ "The Political advancement of the Rohingya People". rohingya.org. Arakan Rohingya National Organisation. Archived from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
  80. ^ "Rohingya the easy prey". The Daily Star. 9 May 2015. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
  81. ^ K. Maudood Elahi, "The Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh: Historical Perspectives and Consequences", In John Rogge (ed.), Refugees: A Third World Dilemma, (New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield), 1987, p. 231.
  82. ^ Lintner, Bertil (1999). Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency Since 1948. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. pp. 317–8. ISBN 9789747100785.
  83. ^ a b "Bangladesh: Breeding ground for Muslim terror". by Bertil Lintner. Archived from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  84. ^ "Sorry, Aung San Suu Kyi, the Rohingya Crisis Is No Laughing Matter". thewire.in. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  85. ^ "Secret 1978 Document Indicates Burma Recognized Rohingya Legal Residence". Forbes. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  86. ^ "Burmese Citizenship Law". Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  87. ^ "Burma/Bangladesh: Burmese Refugees In Bangladesh – Historical Background". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
  88. ^ Jilani, A. F. K. (1999). The Rohingyas of Arakan: Their Quest for Justice. Ahmed Jilani. Archived from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
  89. ^ "Rohingya Terrorists Plant Bombs, Burn Houses in Maungdaw". Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
  90. ^ Brennan, Elliot; O'Hara, Christopher (29 June 2015). "The Rohingya and Islamic Extremism: A Convenient Myth". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 9 May 2018. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
  91. ^ Rohan Gunaratna; Khuram Iqbal (1 January 2012). Pakistan: Terrorism Ground Zero. Reaktion Books. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-1-78023-009-2.
  92. ^ Ved Prakash (2008). Terrorism in Northern India: Jammu and Kashmir and the Punjab. Gyan Publishing House. pp. 62–. ISBN 978-81-7835-703-4. Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  93. ^ "Eight dead in clashes between Myanmar army and militants in Rakhine". Reuters. 13 November 2016. Archived from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  94. ^ "The Republic of the Union of Myanmar Anti-terrorism Central Committee Statement". National Reconciliation and Peace Centre. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
  95. ^ James Griffiths (25 November 2016). "Is The Lady listening? Aung San Suu Kyi accused of ignoring Myanmar's Muslims". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  96. ^ "Myanmar: Fears of violence after deadly border attack". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
  97. ^ "Islamist fears rise in Rohingya-linked violence". Bangkok Post. Post Publishing PCL. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
  98. ^ McPherson, Poppy (17 November 2016). "'It will blow up': fears Myanmar's deadly crackdown on Muslims will spiral out of control". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
  99. ^ "Myanmar: 28 killed in new violence in Rakhine state". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
  100. ^ "Death Sentence for Maungdaw Attacker Raises Questions About State Executions in Burma". The Irrawaddy. 14 February 2017. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
  101. ^ Watson, Angus (30 December 2016). "Nobel winners condemn Myanmar violence in open letter". CNN. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  102. ^ Lone, Wa; Lewis, Simon; Das, Krishna N. (17 March 2017). "Exclusive: Children among hundreds of Rohingya detained in Myanmar crackdown". Reuters. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2017.
  103. ^ "Hundreds of Rohingya held for consorting with insurgents in Bangladesh – Regional | The Star Online". The Star. Malaysia. 18 March 2017. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2017.
  104. ^ a b "UN report details brutal Myanmar effort to drive out half a million Rohingya". The Guardian. 11 October 2017. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 12 October 2017.
  105. ^ Bhaumik, Subir (1 September 2017). "Myanmar has a new insurgency to worry about". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
  106. ^ Judah, Jacob (10 September 2017). "Myanmar: Rohingya insurgents declare month-long ceasefire". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  107. ^ "ARSA fighters declare truce amid Rohingya crisis". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  108. ^ "Rohingya rebels in Myanmar declare truce". BBC News. 9 September 2017. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  109. ^ Smith, Karen; Marilia, Brocchetto. "Myanmar rejects Rohingya ceasefire offer". CNN. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  110. ^ Lintner, Bertil (20 September 2017). "The truth behind Myanmar's Rohingya insurgency". Asia Times. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
  111. ^ "$340M pledged to help Rohingya refugees, U.N. says". 23 October 2017. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
  112. ^ "Some 600,000 refugees later, Ottawa digs in on dealing with Myanmar on Rohingya crisis". CBC News. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
  113. ^ Freeman, Joe. "Bangladesh Expands Family Planning in Rohingya Camps". VOA. Archived from the original on 3 November 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
  114. ^ "Myanmar, Bangladesh agree to cooperate on Rohingya refugee repatriation". Reuters. 24 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
  115. ^ "Myanmar harvests abandoned Rohingya fields, raising fears for return". New Straits Times. 29 October 2017. Archived from the original on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
  116. ^ Olarn, Kocha; Griffiths, James (11 January 2018). "Myanmar military admits role in killing Rohingya found in mass grave". CNN. Archived from the original on 18 January 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
  117. ^ "'Beyond comprehension': Myanmar admits killing Rohingya". Al Jazeera. 11 January 2018. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018. Retrieved 16 January 2018.
  118. ^ "Amnesty: Rohingya fighters killed scores of Hindus in Myanmar". Al Jazeera. 22 May 2018. Archived from the original on 22 May 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
  119. ^ Yee, Tan Hui (22 May 2018). "Rohingya militants massacred Hindus: Amnesty International report". The Straits Times. Archived from the original on 23 May 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
  120. ^ "Ma Ei town Liberated from junta forces, AA conducts landmine clearance operations". Narinjara News. 23 February 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
  121. ^ "Junta forces abandon Ma Ei town, destroy bridge with mine attack". Narinjara News. 17 February 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
  122. ^ "Arakan Army Attacks Myanmar Junta's Rakhine Power Base". The Irrawaddy. 29 March 2024. Archived from the original on 6 April 2024.
  123. ^ "Myanmar ethnic army sets eyes on ninth township in Rakhine state". RFA. 28 March 2024. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024.
  124. ^ "Battles with Arakan Army escalate near junta's Western command headquarters". Myanmar Now. 2 April 2024.
  125. ^ "Rebranding Arakan Army to represent all people in Rakhine State: AA spokesperson". Narinjara. 12 April 2024.
  126. ^ a b "Deputy Battalion Commander, Captain Killed Near Myanmar's Ngapali Beach: Residents". The Irrawaddy. 29 April 2024.
  127. ^ "Fighting near Ann town's western command compel residents to flee". Narinjara News. 28 June 2024. Retrieved 12 August 2024.
  128. ^ "AA Battles Myanmar Junta Forces Near Rakhine Tourist Hotspot". The Irrawaddy. 22 April 2024.
  129. ^ "Arakan Army Inches Closer to Seizing Airport Near Myanmar's Premier Beach". The Irrawaddy. 7 June 2024.
  130. ^ a b "AA Seizes 566th Battalion in Thandwe, Mazin Airport, Ngapali Resort Town, and Maungdaw's 2nd Border Guard Police Battalion". Burma News International. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  131. ^ Brian, Wei (8 July 2024). "AA: Myanmar Junta Grip Weakens on Maungdaw and Thandwe". The Irrawaddy.
  132. ^ "AA Seizes Thandwe Prison, Consolidates Control Over Town". Burma News International. Retrieved 24 July 2024.
  133. ^ "Current Situation in Thandwe Town Following AA Control". Burma News International. Retrieved 24 July 2024.
  134. ^ a b "AA confirms complete capture of Maung Shwe Lay naval base in Thandwe". Narinjara News. 7 September 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2024.
  135. ^ "Arakan Army Penetrates Myanmar Junta Naval Base in Rakhine State". The Irrawaddy. 30 August 2024.
  136. ^ a b "AA Launches Offensive to Capture Tanungup". Burma News International. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  137. ^ "Artillery shell explodes on Taungup University campus, damages properties". Narinjara News. 19 June 2024. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  138. ^ "Junta forces arrest Taungup administrator, municipal official while fleeing to Yangon". Narinjara News. 25 June 2024. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  139. ^ "AA intercepts junta reinforcement column in Taungup, 60 soldiers killed". Narinjara News. 22 June 2024. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  140. ^ "Man, girl lose legs after stepping on landmine in Taungup, another gone missing". Narinjara News. 26 June 2024. Retrieved 12 August 2024.
  141. ^ a b "Myanmar Junta on Brink in Rakhine as AA Advances Into Southernmost Township". The Irrawaddy. 12 August 2024.
  142. ^ "AA Begins Assault on Junta's Artillery Base in Taungup". Narinjara News. 1 November 2024.
  143. ^ "Arakan Army Targets Myanmar Junta's Rakhine Power Hub". Irrawaddy News. 7 November 2024.
  144. ^ "Myanmar Junta on Brink of Losing Four More Towns in Rakhine: Arakan Army". The Irrawaddy. 14 November 2024.
  145. ^ "Arakan Army Captures Town in Far South of Myanmar's Rakhine State". The Irrawaddy. 15 August 2024.
  146. ^ "AA Seizes Another Strategic Junta Base in Rakhine's Mae Taung". The Irrawaddy. 8 October 2024.
  147. ^ "Military Troops Ransack Businesses and Homes in North Gwa Township Villages". Narinjara News. 30 October 2024.
  148. ^ ""The Battle for Gwa Town Could Be Extremely Intense," Says Arakanese Veteran Politician U Pe Than". Narinjara News. 14 October 2024.
  149. ^ "Junta destroys 22 bridges during fighting in Arakan State". Narinjara News. 12 August 2024. Retrieved 12 August 2024.
  150. ^ Rakhine Rebels Take Complete Control of Taungup Township The Irrawaddy. December 14, 2024
  151. ^ WAM (27 December 2017). "UAE Press: We must resolve to aid all refugees". Emirates 24|7. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  152. ^ "Rohingya crisis: Myanmar Court extends detention of two journalists". aninews.in. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  153. ^ "Bangladesh: Humanitarian Situation report No.16 (Rohingya influx) 24 December 2017". ReliefWeb. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  154. ^ Bearak, Max (25 October 2017). "s Bangladesh is now home to almost 1 million Rohingya refugees". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2017.
  155. ^ Pennington, Matthew (28 September 2018). "Bangladesh point finger at Myanmar for Rohingya 'genocide'". AP News. Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2018.
  156. ^ Schlein, Lisa (5 October 2018). "India Deports 7 Rohingya Refugees to Myanmar". Voice of America (VOA). Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
  157. ^ "India under fire over Rohingya expulsions". BBC News. 4 October 2018. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
  158. ^ Doshi, Vidhi (4 October 2018). "India deports Rohingya Muslims, drawing U.N. ire". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
  159. ^ Brenner, Yermi (April 2019). "Rohingya Migration to India: Patterns, Drivers and Experiences" (PDF). Mixed Migration Centre. Briefing Paper. 63: 5–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019.
  160. ^ BARRON, LAIGNEE (8 March 2018). "More Than 43,000 Rohingya Parents May Be Missing. Experts Fear They Are Dead". Time. Archived from the original on 11 December 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  161. ^ Head, Jonathan (10 August 2019). "Rohingya crisis: Villages destroyed for government facilities". BBC. Archived from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
  162. ^ Paddock, Richard C. (23 January 2020). "U.N. Court Orders Myanmar to Protect Rohingya Muslims". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 January 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2020.
  163. ^ "Fake news images add fuel to fire in Myanmar, after more than 400 deaths". The Guardian. 5 September 2017. Archived from the original on 7 September 2017. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
  164. ^ "'Ethnic cleansing' in Myanmar: Claims Rohingya Muslims set fire to own houses proved false". National Post. Associated Press. 11 September 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2017.
  165. ^ "'Proof' of Rohingya-set fires in Myanmar fails inspection". Archived from the original on 1 October 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
  166. ^ McPherson, Poppy (30 August 2018). "Exclusive: Fake photos in Myanmar army's 'True News' book on the ..." Reuters. Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
  167. ^ "Myanmar army fakes photos and history in sinister rewrite of Rohingya crisis". The Guardian, Reuters. 31 August 2018. Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
  168. ^ Slodkowski, Antoni (3 September 2018). "Myanmar army apologizes for mistaken photos in book on Rohingya crisis". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
  169. ^ Stecklow, Steve (15 August 2018). "Why Facebook is losing the war on hate speech in Myanmar". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 November 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
  170. ^ a b Mozur, Paul (15 October 2018). "A Genocide Incited on Facebook, With Posts From Myanmar's Military". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 October 2018. Retrieved 18 October 2018.

Further reading

[edit]
Retrieved from "http://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Rohingya_conflict&oldid=1259686463"