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Eskaleut languages

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Eskaleut
Eskimo–Aleut
Inuit–Yupik–Unangan
Geographic
distribution
Alaska, Northwest Territories (Inuvialuit Settlement Region), Nunavut, northern Quebec (Nunavik), northern Labrador (Nunatsiavut), Greenland, far eastern Russia (Chukotka Peninsula)
Linguistic classificationOne of the world's primary language families
Proto-languageProto-Eskaleut
Subdivisions
Language codes
ISO 639-5esx
Glottologeski1264
Eskaleut languages are spoken in Russia, Alaska, Canada and Greenland

The Eskaleut (/ɛˈskælit/ e-SKAL-ee-oot), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan[1] languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent, and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of what are now the United States (Alaska); Canada (Inuit Nunangat) including Nunavut, Northwest Territories (principally in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region), northern Quebec (Nunavik), and northern Labrador (Nunatsiavut); Greenland; and the Russian Far East (Chukchi Peninsula). The language family is also known as Eskaleutian, or Eskaleutic.[2]

The Eskaleut language family is divided into two branches: Eskimoan and Aleut. The Aleut branch consists of a single language, Aleut, spoken in the Aleutian Islands and the Pribilof Islands. Aleut is divided into several dialects. The Eskimoan languages are divided into two branches: the Yupik languages, spoken in western and southwestern Alaska and in Chukotka, and the Inuit languages, spoken in northern Alaska, Canada and Greenland. Inuit languages, which cover a huge range of territory, are divided into several varieties. Neighbouring varieties are quite similar, although those at the farthest distances from the centre in the Diomede Islands and East Greenland are quite divergent.[3]

The proper place of one language, Sirenik, within the Eskimoan family has not been settled. While some linguists list it as a branch of Yupik,[4] others list it as a separate branch of the Eskimoan family, alongside the Yupik and Inuit languages.[5]

History

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The Alaska Native Language Center believes that the common ancestral language of the Eskimoan languages and of Aleut divided into the Eskimoan and Aleut branches at least 4,000 years ago.[3][6][7] The Eskimoan language family split into the Yupik and Inuit branches around 1,000 years ago.[6] More recent classifications find a third branch, Old Sirenik.[8]

The Eskaleut languages are among the native languages of the Americas. This is a geographical category, not a genealogical one. The Eskaleut languages are not demonstrably related to the other language families of North America[6] and are believed to represent a separate, and the last, prehistoric migration of people from Asia.

Alexander Vovin (2015)[9] notes that northern Tungusic languages, which are spoken in eastern Siberia and northeastern China, have Eskaleut loanwords that are not found in Southern Tungusic, implying that Eskaleut was once much more widely spoken in eastern Siberia. Vovin (2015) estimates that the Eskaleut loanwords in Northern Tungusic had been borrowed no more than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading northwards from its homeland in the middle reaches of the Amur River. Vovin (2015) concludes that the homeland (Urheimat) of Proto-Eskaleut was in Siberia rather than in Alaska.

Internal classification

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Eskaleut 

Position among the world's language families

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Eskaleut does not have any genetic relationship to any of the world's other language families, this being generally accepted by linguists at the present time. There is general agreement that it is not closely related to the other language families of North America. The more credible proposals on the external relations of Eskaleut all concern one or more of the language families of northern Eurasia, such as Chukotko-Kamchatkan just across the Bering Strait. One of the first such proposals, the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis, was suggested by the pioneering Danish linguist Rasmus Rask in 1818, upon noticing similarities between Greenlandic and Finnish. Perhaps the most fully developed proposal to date is Michael Fortescue's Uralo–Siberian hypothesis, published in 1998 which links Eskaleut languages to Yukaghir and the Uralic languages.

More recently Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002) suggested grouping Eskaleut with all of the language families of northern Eurasia (Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Korean, Japanese, Ainu, Nivkh/Gilayak, and Chukchi–Kamchatkan), with the exception of Yeniseian, in a proposed language family called Eurasiatic. Such proposals are not generally accepted. Criticisms have been made stating that Greenberg's hypothesis is ahistorical, meaning that it lacks and sacrifices known historical elements of language in favour of external similarities.[10] Although the Eurasiatic hypothesis is generally disregarded by linguists, one critique by Stefan Georg and Alexander Vovin stated that they were not willing to disregard the theory immediately although ultimately agreed that Greenberg's conclusion was dubious. Greenberg explicitly states that his developments were based on the previous macro-comparative work done by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Bomhard and Kerns.[10] By providing evidence of lexical comparison, Greenberg hoped that it would strengthen his hypothesis.

Despite all these efforts, the Eurasiatic language theory was overruled on the basis that mass comparison is not accurate enough an approach. In comparative linguistics, the comparative method bases its validity on highly regular changes, not occasional semantic and phonological similarities, which is what the Eurasiatic hypothesis provides.

In the 1960s Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with the Wakashan languages. This was expanded by Jan Henrik Holst (2005).[11]

Notable features

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Every word must have only one root (free morpheme) always at the beginning.[12] Eskaleut languages have a relatively small number of roots: in the case of Central Alaskan Yup'ik, around two thousand.[13] Following the root are a number of postbases, which are bound morphemes that add to the basic meaning of the root. If the meaning of the postbase is to be expressed alone, a special neutral root (in the case of Central Alaskan Yup'ik and Inuktitut pi) is used.

The basic word schema is as follows: root-(affixes)-inflection-(enclitic). Below is an example from Central Siberian Yupik.[14]

angyagh-(gh)lla-ng(e)-yug-tuq-lu

boat-big-acquire-want.to-IND.3S-also

angyagh-(gh)lla-ng(e)-yug-tuq-lu

boat-big-acquire-want.to-IND.3S-also

‘also, he wants to acquire a big boat’

There are a total of three affixes internal to the word 'angyagh.' The root (or free morpheme) 'angyagh' and the inflection '-tuq' on the right consist of the indicative mood marker plus third person singular. The enclitic –lu ‘also’ follows the inflection.[14]

Following the postbases are non-lexical suffixes that indicate case on nouns and person and mood on verbs. The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to Eskimoan. The Eskimoan languages are ergative–absolutive in nouns and in Yup'ik languages, also in verbal person marking. All Eskaleut languages have obligatory verbal agreement with agent and patient in transitive clauses, and there are special suffixes used for this purpose in subordinate clauses, which makes these languages, like most in the North Pacific, highly complement deranking.

At the end of a word there can be one of a small number of clitics with meanings such as "but" or indicating a polar question.

Phonologically, the Eskaleut languages resemble other language families of northern North America (Na-Dene and Tsimshianic) and far-eastern Siberia (Chukotko-Kamchatkan). There are usually only three vowels—/a/, /i/, /u/—though some Yup'ik dialects also have /ə/. All Eskaleut languages lack both ejectives and aspirates, in which they resemble the Siberian languages more than the North American ones. Eskaleut languages possess voiceless plosives at four positions (bilabial, coronal, velar and uvular) in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops (though it has retained the nasal). There are usually contrasting voiced and voiceless fricatives at the same positions, and in the Eskimoan subfamily a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is also present. A rare feature of many dialects of Yup'ik and Aleut is contrasting voiceless nasals.

Phonology

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Eskimoan

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The following vowels and consonants were taken from Michael Fortescue et al., 2010.[15]

Vowels

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Eskimoan /ə/ corresponds to Aleut /i/.

Front Central Back
Close i ɨ u
Mid ə
Open a

Consonants

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Inuit allows only a single initial consonant and no more than two successive consonants between vowels.

Yupik lacks the consonant assimilation process so common to Inuit.

Consonants in parentheses are non-Proto-Eskimoan phonemes.

Labial Alveolar Velar Uvular Glottal
Plain Palatalized Lateral
Nasal m () n () ()[1] ŋ (ŋ̥)
Plosive p t k q
Affricate ts[2]
Fricative Voiceless (f) () s () (ɬ) (x) (χ) (h)
Voiced v (w) ð (z) () ɣ ʁ
Trill [3] (ʀ̃)
Approximant j[4] l

Aleut

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The following vowels and consonants were taken from Knut Bergsland, (1997).[16]

Vowels

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The Aleut language has six vowels in total: three short vowels /i/, /u/, /a/, and three long vowels /iː/, /uː/, /aː/. Orthographically, they would be spelled ii, uu, and aa. There are no diphthongs in Aleut vowels. The length of the vowel is dependent upon three characteristics: stress, surrounding consonants, and in particularly Eastern Aleut, surrounding vowels. Short vowels are in initial position if a following consonant is velar or labial. For example: the demonstratives uka, ika, and aka.

Long vowels are lower than their short counterpart vowels, but are less retracted if they make contact with a uvular consonant. For example: uuquchiing 'blue fox,' qiiqix̂ 'storm-petrel', and qaaqaan 'eat it!'

Front Central Back
Close i u
Open a

Consonants

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The Aleut consonants featured below include single Roman letters, digraphs, and one trigraph. Phonemes in parentheses are found only in Russian and English loanwords, the phoneme in italics is found only in Eastern Aleut, and the bold phonemes are a part of the standard Aleut inventory.

Aleut lacks labial stops and allows clusters of up to three consonants as well as consonant clusters in word initial position.

Noteworthy phonological features: voiceless nasals and lack of a /p/.

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Plosive /p/ (p) /b/ (b) /t/ t /d/ (d) /t̺͡s̺/ * // tj /k/ k /ɡ/ (g) /q/ q
Fricative /f/ (f) /v/ v* /θ/ hd /ð/ d /s/ s /z/ z /x/ x /ɣ/ g /χ/ /ʁ/ ĝ
Nasal // hm /m/ m // hn /n/ n /ŋ̥/ /ŋ/ ŋ
Lateral /ɬ/ hl /l/ l
Approximant /ʍ/ hw /w/ w /ɹ/, /ɾ/ (r) /ç/ hy /j/ y /h/ h

Morphology

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Language type

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Polysynthetic language

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Eskaleut is polysynthetic, which features a process in which a single word is able to contain multiple post-bases or morphemes. The Eskaleut languages are exclusively suffixing (with the exception of one prefix in Inuktitut that appears in demonstratives). Suffixes are able to combine and ultimately create an unlimited number of words. Some of the morphemes that are able to attach contain features such as carrying nominal subjects and objects, adverbial information, direct objects, and spatial noun phrases.[17] Polysynthetic languages are said to be a form of extreme agglutination, which allows single words to carry the same information that another language expresses in whole clauses. For example, in Central Alaskan Yupik, one can say:

qayarpaliqasqessaagellruaqa[18]

qayar-

kayak-

pa-

big-

li-

make-

qa-

POL-EV-

sqe-

A.ask-

ssaage-

but-

llru-

PAST-

aqa

1SG/3SG.IND

qayar- pa- li- qa- sqe- ssaage- llru- aqa

kayak- big- make- POL-EV- A.ask- but- PAST- 1SG/3SG.IND

I asked him to make a big kayak. (but actually he has not made it yet)

As a polysynthetic language, Eskaleut is concerned with what "each morpheme means, which categories it can attach to, whether there is any category change, etc. and what type of morphophonological effect occurs to the left as it attaches to the stem".[14]

Morphosyntactic alignment

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Ergative–absolutive language: Eskaleut follows the basic word order of subject–object–verb (SOV).

Eskimoan is an ergative–absolutive language. This means subjects of intransitive verbs and objects of transitive verbs are marked with the absolutive case, while subjects of transitive verbs are marked with the ergative case.

Aleut is not an ergative–absolutive language. It does not matter if the verb is transitive or intransitive—subjects and objects are not marked differently.

If a transitive object or an object of possession is openly communicated, ergative case marking will not be expressed. If a transitive object or object of possession is not openly communicated, then ergative case marking will be expressed.

Example of case marking in Aleut:[16]

Tayaĝu-x̂

man-ABS

qa-x̂

fish

qa-ku-x̂

eat-IND-3SG

Tayaĝu-x̂ qa-x̂ qa-ku-x̂

man-ABS fish eat-IND-3SG

'The man eats the/a fish'

Tayaĝu-m

man-ERG

qa-kuu

eat-3SG/3SG.IND

Tayaĝu-m qa-kuu

man-ERG eat-3SG/3SG.IND

'The man eats it'

Syntax

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The syntax of Eskaleut is concerned with the functional use of its morphological structure. The two language branches, although part of the same family, have separated and detached themselves in relation to grammatical similarities. Bergsland states that Aleut, which was once a language more similar to Proto-Eskimoan than the current Eskimoan languages themselves, has distanced itself from the ancient language.

The case inflections, "relative *-m, instrumental *-mEk/meN, and locative *-mi[19] have undergone phonological merger and led to a completely different explanation of ergative morphology in Proto-Eskimoan.

In order to further explain the profound changes that have occurred in Aleutian syntax, Bergsland proposed the Domino Effect, which is ultimately the chronological order of Aleut’s unique features. Below is a step by step list of the 'domino effect':

The Domino Effect:[20]

  1. The phonological reduction of final syllables and the ensuing syncretism of locative, relative, and instrumental case markers;
  2. The collapse of the ergative system and of the distinction between relative and locative case in postpositional constructions;
  3. The development of the unusual Aleut anaphoric reference system from the debris of this collapse, going hand in hand with a strict fixation of SOV word order;
  4. The simple 3rd person forms when the original morphemes began to refer to any anaphoric (non-overt) referent, and;
  5. The spread of such a referent's own number (including that of a possessor of some overt argument) to the final verb of the (complex) sentence, overriding agreement with the subject.

Vocabulary comparison

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The following is a comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Eskaleut language family (about 122 words). Note that empty cells do not imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language is formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language. Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.

Cognates of the Eskimoan languages can be found in Michael Fortescue et al., 2010.[21]

Cognates of the Aleut language can be found in Knut Bergsland, 1997.[16]

Persons
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
boy hlax *aleqa nukeɫpegaẋ nukaɫpegaq nukaɫpiaq nukaɫpiaq nugatpiaq nugatpiaq nukatpiaq nukatpiaq nukatpiaq nukatpiraq nukatpiaq nukatpiaq nukatpiaq nukappiaq nukappiaq nukappiaq nukappiaq nukappiak nukappiaq nukapperaq nugappiaq
daughter *paniɣ panex panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik panik
family, relative ilaanux̂ *ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila ila
girl ayaĝaadax̂ *nǝvi(a)ʁc(ǝɣ)a- náẋserráẋ neveghsaq neviarcaq niaqsaaʁruk niaqsiaʁruk niviaqsiaʁruk niviaqsiaʁruk niviakkaq niviaqsiraq niviaqhiaq niviaqhiaq niviakkiaq niviaqsiaq niviaqsaaq niviaqsiaq niviatsiaq niviatsiak niviarhiaq niviarsiaraq niiarsiaq
(grand)father adax̂/taatax̂ *ata *ata-ata ata ata ata aata ata/ava ata/ava aapa/taata aapa aapa/ata aappak/ataatak aappak ataata ataata ataata ataata ataata ataata ataata ataata ataataq alaala
human being (shaman word's)[clarification needed] taĝu taʁu tarex taghu taru taru tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau tau taa taa
husband ugi *uɣi uga ugwik wik wii ui ui ui ui ui ui ui ui ui ui ui ui ui uik ui ui uviq
man tayaĝux̂ *aŋu-nt angeta angun angun angun angun angun angun angun angun angun angun angut angut angut anguti anguti anguti angutik angut angut tikkaq
mother anax̂ *ana *ana-ana nana naa/ana aana aana aaga aaga aaka aaka aaka amaamak/aana amaamak/anaana anaana anaana anaana anaana anaana anaana anaana anaana anaanaq annivik
mother-in-law *caki saka saki caki cakiq sagi chagi saki saki hakigaq saki haki haki hakigaq saki saki saki saki sakik haki saki saqiq/sagiq
older brother (of female) huyux̂ *aNǝ-LГun anta aningak anngaq anngaq ani ani ani ani ani aniraaluk ani ani ani ani ani ani ani anik ani ani ani
older sister (of male) uhngix *aleqa nuskit alqaq aɫqaq aliraq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqaq aliqannaq angajuk angajuk angajuk aliqa aleqaq alara
person anĝaĝinax̂ *inguɣ jux yuk suk yuk/cuk inuk inuk iñuk iñuk iñuk inuk inuk inuk inuk inuk inuk inuk inuk inuk inuk inuk iik
son *iʁni-ʁ irnex ighneq irneq irneq irniq irniq irñiq irñiq irñiq irniq irniq irniq irniq irniq irniq irniq irniq innik irniq erneq irniq
wife ayagax̂ *nuLiaq nucix nuliiq nuliq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq nuliak nuliaq nuliaq nuliaq
woman ayaĝax̂ *aʁnaq arnax arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq arnaq annak arnaq arnaq nuliakkaaq
young brother (of female) kingii *nukaq ungjex uyughaq uyuwaq uyuraq nukaq nukaq nukaaluk nukaaluk nukaq nukaq nukaq nukaq mukaq nukaq nukaq nukaq nukaq nukak nukaq nukaq nukaq
young sister (of male) uhngix *nayak najex nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak nayak najak najak najak najak najaatsuk najak najak najak
Pronouns

There are two types of pronouns: independent pronouns and pronominal pronouns.

Pronouns in relation to nouns

In Eskaleut languages, singular, dual, and plural nouns are marked by inflectional suffixes, and if they are possessed, the number marker is followed by pronominal suffixes that specify the (human) possessor. There are no genders, and this can be seen in the four persons: my, your, his/her, his/her own.[22][23]

"His/her own" specifies ownership, in contrast with "his/her", which does not. E.g., his house vs. his own house. (See Possessive determiner § Semantics.)

Pronouns in relation to verbs

Aleut uses independent pronouns, instead of pronominal marking on verbs. On the other hand, Eskimoan languages have four persons and three numbers marked by pronominal suffixes.

Independent pronouns
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
first-person singular (I) ting *vi menga hwanga w'iinga w'iinga wanga uanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvanga uvaqa uvak uanga uanga uara
second-person singular (you) txin *ǝɫ-vǝn-t ɫpi ɫpet eɫpet eɫpet ivlin ilvin ilvich ilvich ilvik ilvit ilvit ivrit/itvin igvin/idvin igvit ivvit ivvit ivvit iffit illit illit ittit
third-person singular (he, she, it) ilaa/uda *ǝɫ-ŋa *una langa/una lnga/una elen/una elii/una ilaa/una ilaa/una ilaa/una ilaa/una ilaa/una ilaa/una una una una una una una una una una una una
first-person dual (we both) tingix *vik hwagakuk w'iingakuk w'iingakuk waguk uaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk uvaguk
second-person dual (you both) txidix *ǝɫ-ptek ɫpetek eɫpetek eɫpetek iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik iliptik ilissik ilittik ilittik ilittik
first-person plural (we) tingin(s) *vit mengaketa hwagakuta w'iingakuta w'iingakuta wagut uagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uvagut uagut uagut uangit
second-person dual reflexive (both ... yourselves) txichix *ǝɫ-vcet ɫpisi ɫpesi eɫpici eɫpeci ilipsi ilipsi ilivsi ilivsi iliffi ilipsi iliffi iliphi iliphi ilipsi ilissi ilitsi ilitsi ilitsi ilissi ilissi ilitsi
third-person dual reflexive (both ... themselves) ilaan(s)/udan(s) *ǝɫ-ŋat *ukuat langwi/uket lngit/ukut elita/ukut eliita/ukut ilaat/ugua ilaat/ugua ilaat/ukua ilaat/ukua ilaat/ukua ilaat/ukua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ukua/ukkua ugua/ukkua
Pronominal suffixes
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
first-person singular (I) -kuq *tua *kuq -jua -tua -tua -tua, -runga -runga -runga -runga -runga -yunga, -yuami -yunga -yunga -runga -yunga -junga -junga -junga -junga -junga -junga -punga, sunga -pua, lua
second-person singular (you) -kuxt *it -jet -ten -ten -ten -rutin -rutin -rutin -rutin -rutin -yutin -yutin -rutit -yutit -jutit -jutit -jutit -jutit -jutit -hutit -sutit -sulit
third-person singular (he, she, it) -kux *tuq -jix -tuq -tuq -tuq -ruq -ruq -ruq -ruq -ruq -yuaq -yuq -ruq -yuq -yuq -juq -juq -juq -juk -huq -soq, poq -tuq, puq
first-person singular possessive (my) -ng *nga -ka/qa -ka/qa -ka/qa -ka/qa -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga/ra -ga -ga/ra -ga/ra -nga/ra
second-person singular possessive (your) -n *in -n -n -n -n -n -n -n -n -n -n -t -t -t -t -it -it -it -it -t -t -t
third-person singular possessive (his, her, its) -(n)gan *ngan -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a -nga/a
third-person singular object (him, her, it) -kuu/qaa *jaa/kaa -jaa/kaa -taa/kaa -taa/kaa -taa/kaa -raa/gaa -raa/gaa -raa/gaa -raa/gaa -yaa/gaa -yaa/gaa -raa/gaa -yaa/gaa -jaa/gaa -jaa/gaa -jaa/gaa -jaa/gaa -jaa/gaa -jaa/gaa -jaa/gaa -saa/gaa -laa/ngaa
Interrogative words
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
who kiin *kina kiin kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kina kia
what alqux *caŋu sangǝ̄́ca sangwa/suna cacaq cacaq/tcauna suna sua sua suna/suva huna suna huna huna huna suna kisu suna suna suna kihu suna/sua kisik
when (past/future) qanaayam *qanga/qaku qanga/qaku qavnga/kaku qangwaq/qaku qangvaq/qaku qanga/qagun qanga/qagu qaglaan/qaku qanga/qaku qanga/qaku qanga/qakugu qanga/qakugu qanga/qakugu qanga/qakugu qanga/qakugu qanga/qakugu qanga/qakugu qanga/qakugu kanga/kakugu qanga/qakugu qanga/qaqugu qanga/qara
where qaataa *nani nani nani/naa/sami nama/nani nani/cami naung/nani naunga/nani sumi/nani/naung sumi/nani/naung humi/nani/nau sumi/nani/naung humi/nani/naung humi/naung nani/naung sumi/nauk nani/nauk nami/nani nami/nani nami/nani humi sumi sumi
why alqul(-usaal) *caŋu sangaami sangami cin/caluni ciin/caluni suami suami summan/suvataa summan/suvataa huuq suuq huuq huuq huuq suuq suuq sungmat sumut summat huuq sooq suuq
Body parts
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
anus idiĝasix̂ *ǝtǝʁ tex eteq eteq teq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itiq itik itiq iteq iliq? *kiaavik
arm chuyux̂ *taɫi- jaqex taɫiq taɫiq taɫiq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq taliq talik taliq taleq taliq
belly xax *aqja aqii aqyaq aqsaq aqsaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq aqiaq akiak aqiaq aqajaq ariaq
blood aamaaxs *aruɣ acex/arux awk auk auk awk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk auk aak aak
calf tugaadix̂ *nakacuɣ-na- nakasegnax nakasugnaq nakacugnaq nakacugnaq nakasungnaq nakasungnaq nakasrungnaq nakasungnaq nakahungnaq nakasungnaq nakahungnaq nakahungnaq nakahungnaq nakasungnaq nakasungnaq nakasunnaq nakasunnaq nakasunnak nakahungnaq nakasunnaaq
ear tutusix̂ *ciɣunt siigeta sigun cuun ciun siun siun siun siun hiun siun hiun hiut hiut siut siuti siuti siuti siutik hiut siut siit/*tusaat
eye dax̂ *irǝ eca iya ii/iingaq ii/iingaq izi izi iri iri iyi iyi iyi iri iyi iji iji iji iji ijik ihi isi ili
eyelash dam qaxsaa *qǝmǝʁja- qemerjax/seqpix qemeryaq/siqpik qemeryaq/ciqpik qemeryaq/ciqpek qimiriaq/siqpiq qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/hiqpik qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/hiqpik qimiriaq/hiqpik qimiriaq/hiqpik qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/siqpik qimiriaq/siqpik kimigiak/sippik qimiriaq/hiqpik qimeriaq/serpik qimiiaq/sirpik
finger atx̂ux̂ *ińura- nurax yughaq suaraq yuaraq inugaq inugaq iñugaq iñugaq iñugaq inugaq inugaq inugaq inugaq inugaq inugaq inugaq inugaq inugak inugaq inuaq iiaq
fingernail *kikra kiikiak kigiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kikiak kigiak
foot kitax̂ *itǝɣ-(a-) ítegá itegaq itaq itgaq itigak itigaq isigak isigak ihigak itigak itigak ihigak itigak itigak isigak itigak itigak itigak ihigak isigak
hair iimlix *ńujaq nujǝẋ/jujǝẋ nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nuyaq nujaq nujaq nujaq nujaq nujak nujaq nujaq nujaq
hand chax̂ *arɣa ácxeẋ aykaq aikaq aikaq agrak agraq argak argak argak adjgak *aygak algak argak adjgak aggak aggak aggak aggak aggak aghak assak attak
head kamĝix̂ *ńarǝ-qu- iiceqeẋ naasquq/nayquq nasquq nacquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niaquq niakuk niaquq niaqoq suuniq
heart kanuux̂ *uŋ-uma- ungevata unguvan unguwan unguvan uumman uumman uumman uumman uumman uumman uumman uummat uummat uummat uummati uummati uummati uummatik uummat uummat iimmat
knee chidiĝix *ciɣǝr-qu sigesqeẋ serquq cisquq ciisquq siitquq siitquq siitquq siitquq hiitquq siitquq hiitquq hiitquq hiitquq siiqquq siiqquq siiqquq siirquq siikkuk hiiqquq seeqqoq
navel qiihliqdax̂ *qacaɫǝʁ qaɫasex qasaɫeq qaɫaciq qaɫaciq qalaziq qalachiq qalasriq qalasiq qalahiq qalasiq qalahiq qalahiq qalahiq qalasiq qalasiq qalasiq qalasiq kalasik qalahiq qalaseq
nose angusix̂ *qǝŋa- qengax qengaq qengaq qengaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq qingaq kingak qingaq qingaq qingaq
Animals
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
bowhead whale, whale alax̂ *aʁvǝʁ arvex arveq arweq/arruq arveq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq arviq avvik arviq arfeq arpiq
Canada goose laĝix̂ *lǝqlǝʁ leẋɫeẋ leghɫeq neqɫeq neqɫeq lirliq lirliq lirliq nirliq nirliq nirliq nirliq nirliq nirliq lirliq/nirliq nirliq nirliq nirliq nillik nirliq nerleq nirtiq
caribou itx̂aygix̂ *tuŋtu tumta tungtu tuntu tuntu tuttu tuttu tuttu tuttu tuttu tuktu tuktu tuktu tuktu tuktu tuktu tuttu tuttu tuttuk tuktu tuttu tuttuq
dog sabaakax̂ *qikmi- qepeneẋ qikmiq qiqmiq/piugta qimugta qimmiq qimmiq qipmiq qimmiq qimmiq qimmiq qinmiq qingmiq/qimmiq qingmiq/qimmiq qimmiq qimmiq qimmiq qimmiq kimmik qimmiq qimmeq qimmiq
fish qax̂ *ǝqaɫuɣ iqeɫex iqaɫuk iqaɫuk iqaɫuk iraluk iraluk iqaluk iqaluk qaluk iqaluk iqaluk iqaluk iqaluk iqaluk iqaluk iqaluk iqaluk ikaluk iqaluk eqaluk iqalik
groundhog, Arctic squirrel sixsix *sigsik siksix sikik cikik cikik siksrik chiksrik siksrik siksrik siksrik siksik hikhik hiksik hikhik siksik siksi sitsik sitsik sitsik highik sissi sitsiq
killer whale aglux̂ *aʁɫuɣ arɫux? arɫuk aqɫuk arɫuk aarlu aarlu aarlu aarlu aarlu aarlu aarlu aarluk aarluk aarluk aarluk aarluk aarluk aalluk aarluk aarluk aartiq?
louse kitux̂ *kumaɣ kúmex kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak kumak
oldsquaw/long-tailed duck aagix̂ *aXaŋǝ-liʁ aahaangalex aahaangwliq ahangkiluk aahaangiiq/aahaaliq aa'aangiq aa'aangiq aahaaliq aahaaliq ahaangiq ahaangiq aahaalliq ahaangiq ahaangiq ahaangiq ahaangiq ahaangiq ahaangiq ahaangik ahaangiq ahaangiq ahaangiq
ptarmigan aĝdiikax̂ *aqărɣiʁ aqergex aqargiiq/aqarriq aqasgiiq aqazgiiq arargiq arargiq aqargiq aqargiq aqaygiq aqiygiq aqilgiq aqirgiq/aqigriq aqidjgiq aqiggiq aqiggiq aqiggiq aqiggiq akiggik aqighiq aqisseq nagalaraq
swan qukingix̂ *quɣruɣ qerúmɫeráẋ quuk qugyuq qugyuq qugruk qugruk qugruk qugruk qugruk qugyuk qugyuk qugyuk qugyuk qugjuk qugjuk qujjuk qujjuk kutjuk qughuk qussuk qutsuk
Other nouns
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
and, also ama *amma ama/sama amahwa/aamta amleq/cama amleq/cama amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma amma aamma aamma
arrow *qaʁru qarceẋ ruuq ruuq qeruq qarruq qarruq qarruq qarruq qarruq qaryuq qaryuq qaryuq qaryuq qarjuq qarjuq qarjuk qajjuk katjuk qarhuq qarsoq qarliq
ash utxix̂ *aʁra arex aʁra araq araq arra arra arra arra arra arya arya arya arya arja arja arja ajja atjak arhaq arsaq arlaq
atmosphere, weather, out silan/slax̂ *cǝla siɫa sɫaa ɫa ciɫa/ella sila chila sila sila hila sila hila hila hila sila sila sila sila sila hila sila sila
breath angil *anǝʁ- anerte- anernaq anerneq anerneq anirniq anirniq aniqniq anirniq anirniq anirniq anirniq anirniq anirniq anirniq anirniq anirniq anirniq aninnik anirniq anerneq anirniq
cloud *nụvǝja nuiya nuwiya nuviya nuviya nuvuya nuvuya nuvuya nuvuya nuvuya nuvuja nuvujaq nuvujaq nuvujaq nuvujak nuvujaq nuiaq nuviaq
cook unagix̂ *ǝɣa ega ega ega ega iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga iga inga
cry, weep qidal *qiRă- qeje qeya qia qeya qia qia qia qia qia qia qia qia qia qia qia qia qia kia qia qia qia
dog barking qihlux *qiluɣ qelux qilugaq qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk qiluk kiluk qiluk qiluk qiliilaq
earth tanax̂ *luna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna nuna
feather haka *culuk silek siluk culuk culuk suluk chuluk suluk suluk huluk suluk huluk huluk huluk suluk suluk suluk suluk suluk huluk suluk siik
fire qignal *ǝknǝ- ekn'ex ekneq keneq keneq ikniq itniq ikniq igniq ingniq ingniq ingniq ingniq ingniq ingniq ingniq inniq inniq innik ingniq inneq igivattattiq
Here it is! wa *uva hwa hwa w'a w'a uvvaa uvvaa uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uvva uhha uffa uppa
hilltop qayax̂ *qemi qemix qemiq qemiq qemiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq qimiq kimik qimiq qimeq qimiq
house ulax̂ *ǝŋlu lu inglu englu englu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu iglu illu illu illuk iglu illu ittiq
hungry haagil *kajak kajex keek kaik kaik kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak kaak
kiss, kiss on nose qingul *kungik singeq singaq(-ghaqaa) cingaq cingaq kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik kunik
lake hanix̂ *taci-ʁ jajvex nayvaq nanwaq nanvaq navraq/teziq navraq/tachiq narvaq/tasriq narvaq/tasiq narvaq/tahiq nayvaq/tasiq nalvaq/tahiq narvaq/tahiq nagvaq/tahiq navvaq/tasiq navvaq/tasiq navvaq/tasiq navvaq/tasiq navvak/tasik nassak/tahiq nassak/taseq nattak/tasiq
load husix̂ *uci usa usi uci uci uzi uchi usri usi uhi usi uhi uhi uhi usi usi usi usi usik uhi usi usi
milk mulukax *emug, itug ituk/emunge ituk/emuk muk ituk immuk immuk immuk immuk ituk miluk miluk ituk immuk immuk immuk immuk immuk immuk immuk immuk immuk
name asax̂ *atǝʁ atex ateq ateq ateq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atiq atik atiq ateq aliq
no nangaa *naaka *qaanga naaka naka/naah kaa ina/qanga naami/naagga qanngaq/naagga naumi/naakka naumi/naagga naggai naaggai imannaq iiq/naagga naung/naagga nauk/aakka aakka/naagga aukka/aggaq naggai/nauk aukang na'a/naagga naami/naagga iiqqii
price, value akiisal *aki aka aki aki aki aki aki agi agi aki aki aki aki aki aki aki aki aki aki akik aki agiq
shaman qugaaĝix̂ *aŋalku- angekex angaɫkuq angaɫquq angaɫkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angatkuq angakkuq angakkuq angakkuq angakkuq angakkuk angakkuq angakkoq angakkiq
ship, boat ayxaasix̂ *umi(r)a umax umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiaq umiak umiaq umiaq umiaq
sky inix̂ *qilaɣ qilex qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak qilak kilak qilak qilak qilak
smoke huyux̂s *puju pujex puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq puyuq pujuq pujuq pujuq pujuq pujuk pujuq pujoq pujuq
snow(flake) qaniigix̂ *qaniɣ qanix qanik qanik qaniq qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik qanik kanik qanik qanik qanik
star sdax̂ *umluria uvluriaq uvluriaq uvluriaq uvluriaq uvluriaq ubluriaq ubluriaq ubluriaq ubluriaq ubluriaq ulluriaq ulluriaq ulluriaq ullugiak ulluriaq ulloriaq utturiaq
sun, day aĝadĝix̂ *ciqi-nǝʁ siqinex siqineq/mazaq ciqineq/masaq ciqineq/macaq siriniq/mazaq chiqiniq/machaq siqiñiq/masaq siqiñiq hiqiñiq siqiniq hiqiniq hiqiniq hiqiniq siqiniq siqiniq siqiniq siqiniq sikinik hiqiniq seqineq siirliq
tell a story/legend uniikal *uniɣ-paʁ- unircex ungikpaq unifkuaq unifkaraq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unipkaaq unikkaaq unikkaaq unikkaaq unikkaak unikkaaq unikkaaq unikkaaq
tent pulaatxix̂ *tupǝʁ tupex tupeq tuviq tuviq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupiq tupik tupiq tupeq tupiq
to ask ahmat- *apete apet- apetaqa- apqar- apete- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apiri- apigi- apiri- aperi- apii-
to urinate qaalux̂ *quʁ(r)ǝ- qux-teqex uraquq qure- qure- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- qui- kui- qui- qui- quvi-
tree, wood *napar- napax napartuq napaq napa napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtuq napaaqtiq napaattuq napaattuk uqpik/napaaqtuq orpik/napaartoq urpik/napaartuq
water taangax̂ *ǝmǝʁ mex emeq meq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imiq imik imiq imeq imiq
wind achunal *anuqǝ anuqa anuqa anuqa anuqa anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anuri anugik anuri anori anirsiq
yes aang *aa/ii ii ii ii-i ii-i ii-i ii-i ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii ii aap ii
Adjectives
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
Cold!/Brrr!/How cold! ababa *alaapaa alaapa alaappa alaappa alaappa alaappa alaappa alaappa alaappa ikkii ikkii ikkii ikkii ikkii ikkii ikkii ikkii ikkii
copper kanuuyax̂ *kanɣu-ja kanuje kanuya kanuyaq kanuyaq kannuuyaq kannuyaq kannuyaq kannguyaq kannuyaq kannuyaq kannuyaq kannuyaq kanuhaq kannujaq kannujaq kannujaq kanusaq kannujak kannussaq kanngussak kanngutsak
fat ignatul *quvi quginaẋ quginaq quili quvinaq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq quiniq kuinik quiniq quineq quiniq
grey hair qidaayux *qirʁǝʁ qircéreɫeẋ qiiq qiiq qiiq qiʁriq qirʁiq qirʁiq qirʁi qirʁiq qiyriq qiiq qiriq qiiq qiiq qiiq qiiq qiiq kiik qiiq qeeq qiiq
long adul *takǝ(v) takevaláẋ taakǝlʁi takequq takequq tagiruq tagiruq takiruq takiruq takiruq takiyuq takiyuq takiyuq takiyuq takijuq takijuq takijuq takijuq takijuk takihuuq takisooq/takivoq tagiliq
still, also, more ahlii *culi sali salin cali cali suli chuli suli suli huli suli huli huli huli suli suli suli suli suli huli suli suli
swell hums *puvet puvceqertéẋ puuvaaquq puge- puve- puit- puit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puvit- puik- puiq-
white quhmax̂ *qătǝ-ʁ qetex qeteq qeteq qeter- qatiq qatiq qatiq qatiq qatiq qatiq qakuqtaq qaquqtaq qakuqtaq qakuqtaq qakuqtaq qakuqtaq qakutaq kakuttak qakuqtuq qaqortoq qaartiq
Numbers
Common meaning Aleut Proto-Eskimoan Sirenik Siberian Yupik Alutiiq Yup'ik Seward Inupiaq Qawiaraq Malimiutun North Slope Uummarmiutun Siglitun Inuinnaqtun Natsilik Kivalliq Aivilik North Baffin South Baffin Nunavik Labrador Inuttut North Greenlandic West Greenlandic East Greenlandic
one ataqan *ataʁu-ci- ateresex ataaziq atauciq/atuusiq atauciq atausiq atauchiq atausriq atausiq atauhiq atausiq atauhiq atauhiq atauhiq atausiq atausiq atausiq atausiq atausik atauhiq ataaseq alaasiq
two aalax̂ *malǝʁu- malrug malghuk malluk malruk marluuk marluk malruk malruk malruk malruk malruuk malruuk malruuk marruuk marruuk marruuk maqruuk magguuk marluk marluk martut
three qankun(-s) *pingajunt pingejug pingayut pingaun pingayun pingasut pingachut piñgasrut piñgasut piñgahut pingasut pingahut pingahut pingahut pingasut pingasut pingasut pingasut pingasut pingahut pingasut pingasit
four siiching *cǝtama- sitamij sitamat staamat cetaman sitaman chitaman sisaman sisaman hihaman sitaman hitaman hihamat hitamat sitamat tisamat sitamat sitamat sitamat hihamat sisamat siamat
five chaang *taɫiman tasímengíyi taɫimat taɫiman taɫiman tauliman taliman talliman talliman talliman talliman talliman tallimat tallimat tallimat tallimat tallimat tallimat tallimat tallimat tallimat tattimat
six atuung *aʁvinelegh inglex aghvínelek arwinlgen arvinglegen arwinilik arwinilik itchaksrat itchaksat itchakhat arvinillik arvinillik arviniq arvinraq arviniqtut arviniliit pingasuujuqtut pingasuujurtut pingasuujuttut arviniglit arfinillit arpiniit
ten hatix̂ *qulǝ(ŋ) qulex? qula qulin qula qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit qulit kulit qulit qulit qutit

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ "Due to the pejorative nature of the term 'Eskimo' in some locales, and the increasing preference for 'Unangan' as opposed to 'Aleut' in Alaska, this family may be alternately referred to as Inuit–Yupik–Unangan. The hyphenated term gives some sense of the variety of languages subsumed under this family label." Holton, Gary. 2012. Overview of Comparative Inuit–Yupik–Unangan. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
  2. ^ Cf. Fleming 1987:189.
  3. ^ a b Kaplan, Lawrence (1984). McGary, Jane (ed.). Inupiaq and the Schools – A Handbook for Teachers. Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
  4. ^ "Ethnologue report for Yupik Sirenk", Ethnologue, Retrieved 2008-08-25.
  5. ^ "Alaska Native Languages – An Overview" Archived 2008-05-09 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
  6. ^ a b c Jacobson, Steven (1984). Central Yupik and the Schools – A Handbook for Teachers. Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
  7. ^ Stern, Pamela (2009). The A to Z of the Inuit. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. pp. xxiii. ISBN 978-0-8108-6822-9.
  8. ^ Dorais, Louis-Jacques. 2010. The Language of the Inuit: Syntax, Semantics, and Society in the Arctic. McGill-Queen's University Press
  9. ^ Vovin, Alexander. 2015. Eskimo Loanwords in Northern Tungusic. Iran and the Caucasus 19 (2015), 87–95. Leiden: Brill.
  10. ^ a b Georg, Stefan; Vovin, Alexander (2005). "Review of Indo-European and its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic language family. Volume 2: Lexicon". Diachronica. 22: 184–191. doi:10.1075/dia.22.1.09geo.
  11. ^ Jan Henrik Holst, Einführung in die eskimo-aleutischen Sprachen. Buske Verlag
  12. ^ Mattissen, Johanna. Dependent–Head Synthesis in Nivkh: A Contribution to a Typology of Polysynthesis p. 282. ISBN 90-272-2965-1
  13. ^ Garry, Jane and Rubino, Carl R. Galvez, Facts about the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages pp. 842–844. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2
  14. ^ a b c Johns, Alana (2014), "Eskimo–Aleut", The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199641642.013.0037, ISBN 9780199641642
  15. ^ Fortescue, Michael; Jacobson, Steven; Kaplan, Lawrence (2010). Comparative Eskimo Dictionary with Aleut Cognates. United States of America: Alaska Native Language Center.
  16. ^ a b c Bergsland, Knut (1997). Aleut Grammar: Unangam Tunuganaan Achixaasix̂. United States of America: Alaska Native Language Center.
  17. ^ Crowley, Terry; Bowern, Claire (2010). An Introduction to Historical Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press.
  18. ^ Miyaoka, Osahito (2012). A grammar of Central Alaskan Yupik (cay). Mouton Grammar Library.
  19. ^ Fortescue, Michael (1998). Language Relations Across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. London: Bookcraft Ltd.
  20. ^ Fortescue, Michael. Language Relations Across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. London: Bookcraft Ltd.
  21. ^ Fortescue, Michael; Jacobson, Steven; Kaplan, Lawrence (2010). Comparative Eskimo Dictionary with Aleut Cognates. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center.
  22. ^ Booij, Geert; Lehmann, Christian; Mugdan, Joachim; Skopeteas, Stavros (2004). Morphologie / Morphology. Walter de Gruyter.
  23. ^ Gutman, Alejandro; Avanzati, Beatriz (2013). "Eskimo–Aleut Languages".

Bibliography

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  • Bergsland, Knut (1997). Aleut Grammar: Unangam Tunuganaan Achixaasix̂. Alaska Native Language Center.
  • Bernet, John W. (1974). An Anthology of Aleut, Eskimo, and Indian Literature of Alaska in English Translation. Fairbanks: University of Alaska.
  • Booij, Geert; Lehmann, Christian; Mugdan, Joachim; Skopeteas, Stavros, eds. (2004). Morphologie / Morphology. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110172782.2. ISBN 978-3-11-019427-2.
  • Crowley, Terry; Bowern, Claire (2010). An Introduction to Historical Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Dumond, Don E. (1965). "On Eskaleutian Linguistics, Archaeology, and Prehistory". American Anthropologist. 67 (5): 1231–1257. doi:10.1525/aa.1965.67.5.02a00080. JSTOR 668365.
  • Fleming, Harold C. (1987). "Towards a definitive classification of the world's languages". Diachronica. 4 (1–2): 159–223. doi:10.1075/dia.4.1-2.09fle.
  • Fortescue, Michael D. (1984). Some Problems Concerning the Correlation and Reconstruction of Eskimo and Aleut Mood Markers. København: Institut for Eskimologi, Københavns Universitet. ISBN 87-87874-10-5.
  • Fortescue, Michael D.; Jacobson, Steven A.; Kaplan, Lawrence D. (1994). Comparative Eskimo Dictionary with Aleut Cognates. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. ISBN 1-55500-051-7. CE976FJK1994.
  • Fortescue, Michael (1998). Language Relations across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-304-70330-2.
  • Greenberg, Joseph H. (2000). Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Vol. 1: Grammar. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
  • Greenberg, Joseph H. (2002). Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Vol. 2: Lexicon. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
  • Gutman, Alejandro; Avanzati, Beatriz (2013). "Eskimo–Aleut Languages". The Language Gulper. Archived from the original on 2023-10-08.
  • Hamp, Eric P., ed. (1976). Papers on Eskimo and Aleut Linguistics. Conference on Eskimo Linguistics. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
  • Holst, Jan Henrik (2005). Einführung in die eskimo-aleutischen Sprachen (in German). Hamburg: Buske. ISBN 9783875483864.
  • Johns, Alana (2014). "Eskimo–Aleut". The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199641642.013.0037. ISBN 9780199641642.
  • Marsh, Gordon H. (1956). The Linguistic Divisions of the Eskimo–Aleut Stock. CE951M1956.
  • Miyaoka, Osahito (2012). A grammar of Central Alaskan Yupik (CAY). Mouton Grammar Library. Vol. 58. doi:10.1515/9783110278576. ISBN 9783110278200.
  • Swift, Mary D. (2004). Time in Child Inuktitut: A Developmental Study of an Eskimo–Aleut Language. Studies on Language Acquisition. Vol. 24. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-018120-7.

Further reading

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  • Compton, Richard (2024). "Inuit-Yupik-Unangan: An overview of the language family". In Carmen Dagostino; Marianne Mithun; Keren Rice (eds.). The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America: A Comprehensive Guide. Vol. 2. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 843–874. doi:10.1515/9783110712742-038. ISBN 978-3-11-071274-2.
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