The Turk Shahi–Arabs Conflicts a series of military conflicts fought between the forces of the Turk Shahi and the Arabs (Umayyad Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate). The conflict started during the reign of Barha Tegin and ended in the regin of Pati Dumi. The Turk Shahis were initially successful in defending their territories against the Umayyad Caliphate however they were defeated during the regin of Pati Dumi and were not only forced to pay tribute but also had to accept Islam. However the Abbasid Caliphate which continued the conflict after 750 CE tho successful subdued Turk Shahis but failed against Zunbil Turk Shahis who successfully defended themselves against the Arabs.
The Turk Shahis, also called Kabul Shahis, were a dynasty of Turkic or mixed Turko-Hephthalite origin ruling from Kabul and Kapisa to Gandhara between the 7th and the 9th centuries CE.[1][2] Scholars consider it likely that they belonged to the Khalaj ethnic group. Their domain bordered on the kingdoms of Kashmir as well as Kannauj.[3] In the 560s, the Western Turks expanded southeastward from Transoxiana, taking Bactria and the Hindu Kush and establishing independent states. The Turk Shahis are thought to have emerged as an offshoot of the Western Turk Yabghus of Tokharistan, succeeding the Nezak Hunas, who were the last rulers of Bactria.[4]
Under the leadership of Barha Tegin, they could successfully counter-attack the Arab forces to regain their lost territories subsequent to the replacement of Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura as Governor of Sistan around 665 CE. The places regained included Arachosia and Kandahar, and their capital, as a result, was shifted from Kapisa to Kabul.[1][2][4] In 671 CE, Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi was made governor of Sistan. The Arabs, meanwhile, continued their new offensive, attacking the Turkic leader "Rutbil" near Bost and forcing him to flee back to al-Rukhkhaj (Arachosia).[5]Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra replaced Rabi in 673 CE, continuing the attack against Rutbil. Eventually, Rutbil negotiated a peace agreement, which allowed him and the King of Kabul to retain control over Kabul and Zabul. The governor of Sistan formally recognized their authority. While details about Barha Tegin's reign remain sparse, numerous early Turk Shahi coins are attributed to him.
An early Turk Shahi ruler, possibly Barha Tegin,[6] with inscription "Lord Ranasrikari" (Brahmi script: Sri Ranasrikari, "The Lord who brings excellence through war"), with tamgha of the Turk Shahis: . In this realistic portrait, he wears the double-lapel Turkic caftan, and a crown with three crescents (one hidden from view) surmounted by the head of a wolf, a Turkic symbol.[7] Late 7th to early 8th century CE.[8][9]
Tegin Shah succeeded his father and became ruler around 680. His domain stretched from Kabulistan to Gandhara and initially included Zabulistan. However, Zabulistan was taken over by his elder brother, Rutbil, who founded the Zunbil dynasty. The relationship between the two brothers was often strained, but they cooperated in resisting Arab invasions.[2][10]
The Arabs tried to take Kabul and Zabulistan in 683; however, their campaign was defeated. Ibn Ziyad was captured, the Arab general Abu Ubaida, in Kabul.[4][11]Yazid ibn Ziyad, who was the governor of Sijistan, was killed during the assault on the city. In this regard, even though they suffered a defeat, the Arabs briefly gained Kabul between 684 and 685.[11] In 698, the general Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra campaigned against the Zunbils but suffered a defeat.[12] It was on account of this campaign that he was constrained to pay huge tribute and release hostages from himself, with as many as three of his sons, not to attack them further. Around 700, Ibn al-Ash'ath launched another invasion with the so-called "Peacock Army." He made good initial progress but then negotiated peace with the Turks and later turned against the Umayyad viceroy, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, leading a rebellion.
Tegin Shah recovered Zabulistan around 710. The Chinese report that the Zunbils were under the sway of Kabul from 710 to 720. The Zunbils and Turk Shahis sometimes paid the Arabs tribute but did not submit to the consolidation of more effective authority by the Arabs.[12]
The Arabs were frequently claiming to be in the ascendant over the Zunbils.[15] In 711, Qutayba ibn Muslim was successful in forcing the Zunbils to pay tribute.[15] But this was not long sustained; for Yazid ibn al-Ghurayf, governor of Sistan, failed to get tribute on his expedition in 725–726. It was not till 769 that the Zunbils paid tribute again, when Ma'n ibn Za'ida al-Shaybani achieved a notable victory over them near Ghazni.[15]
Royal figure with triple-crescent crown and halo, wearing a double-lapel caftan and boots, accompanied by a figure in armour. This is a possible depiction of Sun and Moon deities, showing Central Asian influence. Mural from the Fondukistan monastery, circa 700 AD.[16][17] Similarities can be seen with the Kizil Caves knights, indicating the continuity of Central Asian art under the patronage of the Western Turks.[18]
In the 27th year [of Kaiyuan, ie 739 CE], the king Wusan Tela Sa [for Khorasan Tegin Shah] submitted a memorial requesting that due to his old age, his son Fulin Jisuo may succeed him on the throne. The emperor agreed and dispatched an envoy in order to confer the king's title on him through an imperial edict.
Fromo Kesaro seems to have won a major victory against the Arabs. Evidence from his coins shows that the Arabs had been defeated and forced to pay tribute to him. This can be seen through Sasanian coins and coins minted by Arab governors, which were later overstruck with inscriptions in the Bactrian script by Fromo Kesaro.[22][23][24]
Sasanian drachm with Fromo Kesaro obverse and reverse rim overstrike in Bactrian.[25][26]
In 745 AD, Bo Fuzhun, the son of Fromo Kesaro, became the king, according to the Old Book of Tang.[e].He was also given the title "General of the Left" by the Tang dynasty, which suggests a close relationship between the Chinese and the Turk Shahis, especially as the Islamic empires were expanding.
Around 760 AD, the Chinese left the region after being defeated at the Battle of Talas in 751 AD and dealing with the An Lushan Rebellion. This weakened the Turk Shahis' power.[29] Between 775 and 785 AD, a ruler of Kabul, possibly named Hanhal, Khinkhil, Khingil, or Khingal, received a proposal from the Abbasid CaliphAl-Mahdi asking for his submission.[f][32] He was either a unique ruler of the Turk Shahis or identical with Bo Fuzhun.[32][33][34][35][36] This ruler agreed, and he might have been the same person as Bo Fuzhun.[37][38][39]
After the Abbasids came to power in 750, the Zunbils formally submitted to the third Abbasid Caliph, al-Mahdi (r. 775-785). Again, this subjection was most probably fictive, as rebellion against Muslim government continued in this region. To quote the account of the contemporary Muslim historian Ya'qubi (d. 897/8) in his Ta'rikh ("History"), al-Mahdi even managed to, or so reports, receive submissions from several central Asian rulers-including the Zunbils.[40]
Al-Mahdī sent messengers to the kings, calling on them to submit, and most of them submitted to him. Among them were the king of Kābul Shāh, whose name was Ḥanḥal; the king of Ṭabaristān, the Iṣbahbadh; the king of Soghdia, the Ikhshīd; the king of Tukhāristān, Sharwin; the king of Bamiyan, the Shīr; the king of Farghana, ------ ; the king of Usrūshana, Afshīn; the king of the Kharlukhiyya, Jabghūya; the king of Sijistān, Zunbīl; the king of Turks, Tarkhan; the king of Tibet, Ḥ-h-w-r-n; the king of Sind, al-Rāy; the king of China, Baghbür; the king of India and Atrāḥ, Wahūfūr; and the king of the Tughuz-ghuz, Khāqān.
In 769 CE, Arab forces were able to extract tribute from the Zunbils once again, after nearly five decades of resistance. This was accomplished when Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybani defeated the Zunbils near Ghazni.[15]
There are further Arab incursions recorded for the year 795 CE. According to the Muslim geographer in Kitāb al-Buldan, the Arabs attacked a place called Sah Bahar, which is considered to be at the site of Tepe Sardar. During the raid, they destroyed and burned the idols that were being worshipped there.[42]
Al-yaqubi seems to give the name of the Kabul Shah as "Ḥanḥal", but the reading is uncertain.[30][43] But a later handwritten copy of the book is known to transcribe the name as "Khanjal".[43] The original account by Ya'qubi reads:
Al-Mahdī sent messengers to the kings, calling on them to submit, and most of them submitted to him. Among them were the king of Kābul Shāh, whose name was Ḥanḥal; the king of Ṭabaristān, the Iṣbahbadh; the king of Soghdia, the Ikhshīd; the king of Tukhāristān, Sharwin; the king of Bamiyan, the Shīr; the king of Farghana, ------ ; the king of Usrūshana, Afshīn; the king of the Kharlukhiyya, Jabghūya; the king of Sijistān, Zunbīl; the king of Turks, Tarkhan; the king of Tibet, Ḥ-h-w-r-n; the king of Sind, al-Rāy; the king of China, Baghbür; the king of India and Atrāḥ, Wahūfūr; and the king of the Tughuz-ghuz, Khāqān.
The name "Khanjal" has been variously reconstructed as "Khinkhil", "Khinjil" or "Khinjal", and is very similar to the name of an earlier Alchon Hun ruler named Khingila (5th century CE).[43][45] According to historian Rezakhani, the name mentioned by Ya'qubi is "obviously a namesake" of Khingila.[46]
Harun al-Rashid conducted two military campaigns against the Turk Shahis, one in 769 and the other in 786. Both campaigns ended in defeat for the Arabs because their invasions were successfully repelled.
Renewed conflict with the Arabs and decline of Turk Shahis and Failure against Zunbil Turk Shahis
Funerary stele of a royal couple in the Buddhist Fondukistan monastery, dedicated around the end of the 7th century CE under the Turk Shahis. King wearing a Central Asian caftan with double lapel, a belt and pointed boots, and Queen of Indian type, holding hands over cushions. Circa 700 AD.[16][47][48]
The Arabs and the Turk Shahis continued to fight on into the 9th century CE.[4] During the Great Abbasid Civil War of 811–819 CE, the Turk Shahis, who were called "Pati Dumi" in Arab sources, exploited the turmoil and invaded parts of Khorasan.[49] After Al-Ma'mun had emerged victorious in the civil war, he sent troops to face the Turk Shahis. The Arabs defeated the Turk Shahis and advanced into Gandhara in 814/815 CE.[49] According to this, the Turk Shahi ruler was forced to accept Islam, make an annual payment of 1,500,000 dirhams along with 2,000 slaves, and hand over a golden idol adorned with silver, jewels, which was sent to Mecca. This account is first recorded by Al-Azraqi in 834 CE and was documented later by Quṭb ed-Dīn.
Now, when this King converted to Islam, he decided that the throne with the idol should be given as an offering for the Ka'ba.
He therefore sent the throne to Al-Ma'mun in Merv, who then sent it to Al-Hasan ibn Sahl in Wasit, who in turn charged one of his lieutenants from Balkh, Naçîr ben Ibrahim, with accompanying it to Mecca. This lieutenant arrived there in the year AH 201 (816 AD) during the time of pilgrimage when Isḥâḳ ben Mûsá ben ´Isá was leading the pilgrims to the holy sites. When they returned from Mina, Naçîr ben Ibrahim placed the throne with the carpet and the idol in the center of the square dedicated to Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, between Safa and Marwa, where it remained for three days.
Al-Azraqi described a statue of Buddha wearing a crown and ornaments, sitting on a throne. This style is typical of the era and is often attributed to the provinces of Afghanistan and Kashmir. Not long after, another campaign against the Gandhara region probably took place, in which the Caliphate reached the Indus River and won a great victory.[51]
The Zunbils successfully repelled raids by Al-Ma'mun and continued ruling for about 20 more years. However, their eventual clash with the Saffarids led to their decline and final collapse.[51]
The Turk Shahis really had problems, and around 843 CE, his last ruler, Lagaturman, was overthrown by his minister, a Brahmin named Kallar.[5][51] The historian Al-Biruni tells us that Lagaturman's evil conduct was greatly resented by his people and led them to apply to Kallar. Kallar is said to have encountered a hidden treasure, with which he consolidated his power.[52] He put Lagaturman in prison for corruption and served as regent for a short time before becoming king. Kallar went on to found a new dynasty called the "Hindu Shahi" in Gandhara. However, no other contemporary sources mention Kallar, and there is limited information about his reign, his territory, or how long he ruled.[51]
^Martin 2011, p. 127 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMartin2011 (help):"He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
^Martin 2011, p. 127 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMartin2011 (help):"He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
^The study of these new coins originally appeared in "New Coins of Fromo Kēsaro" by Helmut Humbach in: G. Pollet (ed.), "India and the Ancient World. History, trade and culture before A.D. 650". Professor P.H.L. Eggermont jubilee volume. Leuven 1987, 81-85, plates. XI-XIII
^Tianbao (天寶, 742–756), era name used by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
天寶四年，又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王，仍授左驍衛將軍 In the 4th year of the Tianbao reign [745 CE][d] another imperial edict was issued to make his [i.e. Fromo Kesaro's] son Bo Fuzun succeed him on the throne as the King of Jibin and Uddiyana. He was conferred the title of "General of Left Stalwart Guard".
^"New Coins of Fromo Kēsaro" by Helmut Humbach in: G. Pollet (ed.), "India and the Ancient World. History, trade and culture before A.D. 650". Professor P.H.L. Eggermont jubilee volume. Leuven 1987, 81-85, plates. XI-XIII
^天寶四年,又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王,仍授左驍衞將軍。"Kesar's son Bo Fuzhun succeed him on the throne as the king of Jibin and Wuchang. He was conferred the title General of the Left Stalwart Guard" in Balogh 2020, p. 104
Abbasid Caliphate (after 750 CE)
Barha Tegin
Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura
Sri Ranasrikari, "The Lord who brings excellence through war"), with tamgha of the Turk Shahis: 
. In this realistic portrait, he wears the double-lapel Turkic caftan, and a crown with three crescents (one hidden from view) surmounted by the head of a wolf, a Turkic symbol.[7] Late 7th to early 8th century CE.[8][9]
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