Decolonisation of Oceania

The decolonisation of Oceania occurred after World War II when nations in Oceania achieved independence by transitioning from European colonial rule to full independence.

While most of the countries of Oceania have a specific independence day, the independence of Australia and the independence of New Zealand were a gradual process and cannot be associated clearly with a specific date. Most of the British colonies in Australia gained responsible government in the 1850s, as did New Zealand in 1856. This was formalised into Dominion status in the 1900s, but with the United Kingdom retaining certain (disused) powers de jure. Although they were de facto sovereign states by the 1920s, Australia and New Zealand refused the formal recognition of their full sovereignty when offered through the Statute of Westminster in 1931, before accepting it respectively in 1942 and 1947.

Oceania continues to include a number of dependent territories controlled by colonial powers. The United Nations list of non-self-governing territories includes six Oceanian territories – the French dependencies of French Polynesia and New Caledonia, the American territories of American Samoa and Guam, the British dependency of Pitcairn Islands, and the New Zealand territory of Tokelau.

Timeline

Timeline of decolonising Oceania
Country	Colonial name	Colonial power^[1]	Independence date^[2]	First head of state^[3]	Independence won through
New Zealand	Dominion of New Zealand	United Kingdom	20th century	–	gradual process
Australia^[4]	Australia	United Kingdom	20th century	–	gradual process
Indonesia^[5]	Dutch East Indies Netherlands New Guinea	Netherlands	27 December 1949 (East Indies) 1 May 1963 (New Guinea)^[6]	Sukarno	Indonesian National Revolution
Samoa	Western Samoa Trust Territory	New Zealand	1 January 1962	Malietoa Tanumafili II and Tui Atua Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole^[7]	peaceful campaign by the Mau movement
Nauru	Nauru Trust Territory	Australia^[8]	31 January 1968	Hammer DeRoburt	peaceful campaign
Tonga	Kingdom of Tonga	United Kingdom	4 June 1970	Taufaʻahau Tupou IV	request
Fiji^[9]	Kingdom of Fiji Colony of Fiji	United Kingdom	5 June 1871 13 August 1877 10 October 1970^[10]	Seru Epenisa Cakobau (Kingdom of Fiji) Kamisese Mara^[11] (Prime Minister: head of gov.)	British initiative, and negotiation
Papua New Guinea	German New Guinea Territory of New Guinea Trust Territory of Papua and New Guinea	German Empire United Kingdom^[12] Australia	16 September 1975	Michael Somare (Prime Minister: head of gov.)	Australian initiative
Solomon Islands	British Solomon Islands	United Kingdom	7 July 1978	Peter Kenilorea (Prime Minister: head of gov.)	British initiative
Tuvalu	Gilbert and Ellice Islands	United Kingdom	1 January 1976 1 October 1978 12 July 1979	Toaripi Lauti (Prime Minister: head of gov.)	British initiative
Kiribati	Gilbert and Ellice Islands	United States United Kingdom	1 January 1976 1 October 1978 12 July 1979	Ieremia Tabai	British initiative
Vanuatu	New Hebrides	United Kingdom France^[13]	30 July 1980 1 August 1980	George Kalkoa	peaceful campaign by the New Hebrides National Party
Marshall Islands	Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands	United States	2 September 1945 21 October 1986	Amata Kabua	ongoing Compact of Free Association with United States
Federated States of Micronesia	Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands	United States	2 September 1945 3 November 1986	Tosiwo Nakayama	ongoing Compact of Free Association with United States
Palau	Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands	United States	2 September 1945 25 May 1994 (de facto) 1 October 1994 (de jure)	Kuniwo Nakamura	ongoing Compact of Free Association with United States
Cook Islands	Cook Islands	New Zealand	4 August 1965 1992^[14]	Albert Henry (Prime Minister: head of gov.) Geoffrey Henry (Prime Minister: head of gov.)	ongoing free association with New Zealand
Niue	Niue	New Zealand	19 October 1974 1994^[15]	Robert Rex (Premier: head of gov.) Frank Lui (Premier: head of gov.)	ongoing free association with New Zealand

Stages of decolonisation

Country	Date of current form of government	Birth of current form of government	Date of acquisition of sovereignty	Acquisition of sovereignty	Date of territorial modification	Most recent significant territorial modification
Australia^[4]	1 January 1901	Commonwealth of Australia established as a federation.	1 January 1901	Federation of Australia – Formation of the Commonwealth of Australia by six separate British self-governing colonies	16 September 1975	Papua New Guinea becomes formally independent from Australia
			9 October 1942	Statute of Westminster adopted – Britain loses the power to legislate for Australia except by request
			3 March 1986	Australia Act 1986 – Remaining legal ties between Britain aг d Australia are abolished, including the ability for the UK to legislate with effect in Australia
Fiji			10 October 1970	Independence from the United Kingdom
Kiribati			12 July 1979	Independence from the United Kingdom	1 October 1975	Separation of the Gilbert Islands (later Kiribati) and the Ellice Islands (later Tuvalu)
Marshall Islands	1 May 1979	Constitution and a local government established	21 October 1986	Compact of Free Association with the United States
Federated States of Micronesia	10 May 1979	Constitution ratified	3 November 1986	Compact of Free Association with the United States	10 May 1979	Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae unite to form the Federated States of Micronesia
Nauru			31 January 1968	Independence from UN Trusteeship (Australian, British and New Zealand administration ends)
New Zealand	6 February 1840	Treaty of Waitangi where the British Crown established a right to govern from indigenous Māori tribes^[16]	17 January 1853	Self-Government	1 June 1962	Samoa becomes fully independent from New Zealand. It is also the first small-island country in the Pacific to become independent.
			18 April 1856	Responsible Government
			26 September 1907	Granted nominal independence (Dominion status).
			25 October 1926	Balfour Declaration of 1926 — Great Britain and the Dominions are “autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs”
			27 July 1938	Governor-General ceases to represent the British Government and becomes the personal representative of the King.
			25 November 1947	Statute of Westminster adopted — Britain loses the power to legislate for New Zealand except by request
			10 December 1947	Full power to amend own constitution
			1 December 1967	Governor-General becomes a New Zealand appointment
			1 January 1987	Commencement of the Constitution Act 1986 — Removed the ability of the British Parliament to pass laws for New Zealand with the consent of the New Zealand Parliament.
Palau	1 January 1981	Republic of Palau created upon the adoption of a constitution	1 October 1994	Emerged from United Nations trusteeship (administered by the United States).
Papua New Guinea			1 December 1973	Self-governing territory
Papua New Guinea			16 September 1975	Independence from Australia
Samoa			1 June 1962	Independence from New Zealand
Solomon Islands			2 January 1976	Self-government granted by the United Kingdom
Solomon Islands			7 July 1978	Independence from the United Kingdom
Tonga			4 July 1970	Independence from the United Kingdom	4 December 1845	Unification of what is now the islands of Tonga by George Tupou I of Tonga
Tuvalu	1 October 1975	Separation of Gilbert Islands (later Kiribati) and Ellice Islands (later Tuvalu)	1 October 1978	Independence from the United Kingdom	7 February 1979	Treaty with United States recognizing Tuvaluan control over Funafuti, Nukufetau, Nukulaelae, and Niulakita atolls
Vanuatu			30 July 1980	Independence from joint British-French condominium

Oceania

This is a list of all present sovereign states in Oceania^[17] and their predecessors. The region of Oceania is generally defined geographically to include the subregions of Australasia,^[18] Melanesia,^[19] Micronesia and Polynesia, and their respective sovereign states. Oceania was originally colonised by Europeans with Australia and New Zealand primarily by the British, and the Pacific Islands primarily by the British, French and Dutch. Today, Oceania consists of fourteen sovereign states of various government types, the most common consisting of parliamentary systems.

Sovereign state	Predecessors
Australia^[4]	British Colonial Period Colony of New South Wales (1788–1901) Van Diemen's Land Colony (1825–1856), later Colony of Tasmania (1856–1901) Colony of Western Australia (1829–1901) Province of South Australia (1836–1901) Victoria Colony (1851–1901) Colony of Queensland (1859–1901) Commonwealth of Australia (1901–present)
Fiji	Kingdom of Fiji (1871–1874) Colony of Fiji (1874–1970) Dominion of Fiji (1970–1987) Republic of Fiji (1987–present)
Kiribati	Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (1892–1975) Colony of Gilbert Islands (1975–1979) Independent and Sovereign Republic of Kiribati (1979–present)
Marshall Islands	German New Guinea (1884–1919) South Pacific Mandate (1919–1947) Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1947–1994) (Marshall Islands participation until 1979) Republic of the Marshall Islands (1979–present)
Federated States of Micronesia	Spanish East Indies (1565–1898) German New Guinea (1884–1919) South Pacific Mandate (1919–1947) Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1947–1994) (FSM participation until 1979) Federated States of Micronesia (1979–present)
Nauru	German New Guinea (1884–1919) (participation 1888–1914) Nauru (1914–1942) (League of Nations mandate 1932–1942) Japanese occupation of Nauru (1942–1945) Nauru (1945–1968) (UN Trust Territory 1947–1968) Republic of Nauru (1968–present)
New Zealand	Colony of New South Wales (1788–1901) (NZ participation 1788–1841) Colony of New Zealand (1841–1907) Dominion of New Zealand (1907–1947) New Zealand (1947–present)
Palau	Spanish East Indies (1565–1898) German New Guinea (1884–1919) South Pacific Mandate (1919–1947) Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1947–1994) Republic of Palau (1994–present)
Papua New Guinea	Territory of Papua (1884–1975) and German New Guinea (1884–1919), later Territory of New Guinea (1919–1975) (League of Nations mandate, later UN Trust Territory) Territory of Papua and New Guinea (1949–1975) (administrative union between Territory of Papua and Territory of New Guinea) Independent State of Papua New Guinea (1975–present)
Samoa	German Samoa (1900–1920) Western Samoa Trust Territory (1920–1962) (League of Nations mandate of Britain, later UN Trust Territory of New Zealand) Independent State of Western Samoa (1962–1997) Independent State of Samoa (1997–present)
Solomon Islands	German New Guinea (1884–1919) (Solomon Islands participation 1884–1893) British Solomon Islands (1893–1978) Solomon Islands (1978–present)
Tonga	Kingdom of Tonga (1845–present) (British protectorate 1900–1970)
Tuvalu	Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony (1892–1975) Colony of Tuvalu (1975–1978) Tuvalu (1978–present)
Vanuatu	Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission (1887–1889) Independent Commune of Franceville (1889–1890) (unrecognised state) Anglo-French Joint Naval Commission (1890–1906) New Hebrides Condominium (1906–1980) Republic of Vanuatu (1980–present)

Notes

^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power. In addition to it, the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and UN Trust Territories.
^ Date of decolonization for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonized independent countries are given in separate notes, as are dates when a commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy. Any discrepancies between dates listed here and public holidays celebrating the country's independence (and whether the date listed is celebrated as a holiday at all) are noted, as well as the national day if the country does not have an independence day.
^ First head of state after independence. For current and former Commonwealth realms instead of the first head of state is listed as the first head of government.
^ ^a ^b ^c Many Indigenous Australians and supporters of the Australian Indigenous sovereignty movement would contest the status of Australia as decolonised, noting that neither colonial Britain nor the subsequent Commonwealth of Australia ever signed a treaty with any of the hundreds of distinct Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander societies that existed prior to colonisation and still exist today. See:
Ghillar, Michael Anderson (15 June 2015). "Decolonisation: to be or not to be included in the Constitution?". Sovereign Union.;
Taylor, Zoe (5 December 2017). "Listen up: decolonisation is a collective effort by all Australians". Curtin University.;
Korff, Jens (5 September 2021). "Decolonisation: What does it mean for me?". Creative Spirits.;
Barayamal (6 January 2023). "What is decolonising Australia?".
^ Transcontinental country, partially located in Asia.
^ Not celebrated as a holiday. Netherlands New Guinea was separated from the Dutch East Indies on 29 December 1949. Following skirmishes with Indonesia in 1961 and the New York Agreement, the Netherlands transferred the authority of Dutch New Guinea to a UN protectorate on 1 October 1962 and it was integrated into Indonesia on 1 May 1963. The date 17 August 1945 (when Sukarno formally proclaimed Indonesia's independence) is celebrated as Indonesia's date of independence.
^ Joint position known as O Ao o le Malo, whose individuals are severally referred to as O le Ao o le Malo.
^ As a League of Nations mandate and later UN Trust Territory Nauru was under effective Australian administration with the United Kingdom and New Zealand as nominal co-trustees.
^ As the Dominion of Fiji.
^ Celebrated as Fiji Day. (While Fiji does not have a holiday called Independence Day, Fiji Day is celebrated as such). On 7 October 1987 after two military coups, Fiji formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.
^ Having been out of office since 13 April 1987, on 5 December Mara was sworn in along with Penaia Ganilau as Prime Minister and President respectively. From the abolition of Fiji's monarchy to Mara's and Ganilau's inauguration, Sitiveni Rabuka served as Head of the Interim Military Government.
^ The main part of German New Guinea after the World War I became a League of Nations mandate and later a UN Trust Territory as the Territory of New Guinea under Australian administration. The Territory of Papua was a British colony transferred to the British Dominion of Australian administration in 1902.
^ Vanuatu was a joint British-French Condominium
^ Since 4 August 1965 the Cook Islands are a state in free association with New Zealand. The UN recognized them as a state under international law in 1992 Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. The Cook Islands are fully independent in their foreign relations and defence, but retain a residual constitutional link with New Zealand concerning citizenship.
^ Since 19 October 1974 Niue is a state in free association with New Zealand. The UN recognized it as a state under international law in 1994 Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Niue is fully independent in its foreign relations and defence but retains a residual constitutional link with New Zealand concerning citizenship.
^ Finlayson, Christopher (20 March 2024). He Kupu Taurangi : Treaty settlements and the future of Aotearoa New Zealand. Huia Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-77550-615-7. OCLC 1238026659.
^ "United Nations Statistics Division – Countries of Oceania". Millenniumindicators.un.org. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2009.
^ The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and New Zealand."
^ Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in Southeast Asia (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region.

[1] Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power. In addition to it, the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and UN Trust Territories.

[2] Date of decolonization for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonized independent countries are given in separate notes, as are dates when a commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy. Any discrepancies between dates listed here and public holidays celebrating the country's independence (and whether the date listed is celebrated as a holiday at all) are noted, as well as the national day if the country does not have an independence day.

[3] First head of state after independence. For current and former Commonwealth realms instead of the first head of state is listed as the first head of government.

[aus-4] Many Indigenous Australians and supporters of the Australian Indigenous sovereignty movement would contest the status of Australia as decolonised, noting that neither colonial Britain nor the subsequent Commonwealth of Australia ever signed a treaty with any of the hundreds of distinct Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander societies that existed prior to colonisation and still exist today. See:
Ghillar, Michael Anderson (15 June 2015). "Decolonisation: to be or not to be included in the Constitution?". Sovereign Union.;
Taylor, Zoe (5 December 2017). "Listen up: decolonisation is a collective effort by all Australians". Curtin University.;
Korff, Jens (5 September 2021). "Decolonisation: What does it mean for me?". Creative Spirits.;
Barayamal (6 January 2023). "What is decolonising Australia?".

[5] Transcontinental country, partially located in Asia.

[6] Not celebrated as a holiday. Netherlands New Guinea was separated from the Dutch East Indies on 29 December 1949. Following skirmishes with Indonesia in 1961 and the New York Agreement, the Netherlands transferred the authority of Dutch New Guinea to a UN protectorate on 1 October 1962 and it was integrated into Indonesia on 1 May 1963. The date 17 August 1945 (when Sukarno formally proclaimed Indonesia's independence) is celebrated as Indonesia's date of independence.

[7] Joint position known as O Ao o le Malo, whose individuals are severally referred to as O le Ao o le Malo.

[8] As a League of Nations mandate and later UN Trust Territory Nauru was under effective Australian administration with the United Kingdom and New Zealand as nominal co-trustees.

[9] As the Dominion of Fiji.

[10] Celebrated as Fiji Day. (While Fiji does not have a holiday called Independence Day, Fiji Day is celebrated as such). On 7 October 1987 after two military coups, Fiji formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.

[11] Having been out of office since 13 April 1987, on 5 December Mara was sworn in along with Penaia Ganilau as Prime Minister and President respectively. From the abolition of Fiji's monarchy to Mara's and Ganilau's inauguration, Sitiveni Rabuka served as Head of the Interim Military Government.

[12] The main part of German New Guinea after the World War I became a League of Nations mandate and later a UN Trust Territory as the Territory of New Guinea under Australian administration. The Territory of Papua was a British colony transferred to the British Dominion of Australian administration in 1902.

[13] Vanuatu was a joint British-French Condominium

[14] Since 4 August 1965 the Cook Islands are a state in free association with New Zealand. The UN recognized them as a state under international law in 1992 Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. The Cook Islands are fully independent in their foreign relations and defence, but retain a residual constitutional link with New Zealand concerning citizenship.

[15] Since 19 October 1974 Niue is a state in free association with New Zealand. The UN recognized it as a state under international law in 1994 Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Niue is fully independent in its foreign relations and defence but retains a residual constitutional link with New Zealand concerning citizenship.

[16] Finlayson, Christopher (20 March 2024). He Kupu Taurangi : Treaty settlements and the future of Aotearoa New Zealand. Huia Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-77550-615-7. OCLC 1238026659.

[unsd-m49-17] "United Nations Statistics Division – Countries of Oceania". Millenniumindicators.un.org. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2009.

[Australasia-18] The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and New Zealand."

[Melanesia-19] Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in Southeast Asia (UN region) frequently reckoned in this region.

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Timeline

Stages of decolonisation

Oceania

See also

Notes