Climate of Greenland
Greenland's climate is a tundra climate (Köppen ET) on and near the coasts and an ice cap climate (Köppen EF) in inland areas. It typically has short, cool summers and long, moderately cold winters.
Due to Gulf Stream influences, Greenland's winter temperatures are very mild for its latitude. In Nuuk, the capital, average winter temperatures are only −9 °C (16 °F).[1] In comparison, the average winter temperatures for Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada, are around −27 °C (−17 °F).[2] Conversely, summer temperatures are very low, with an average high around 10 °C (50 °F).[1] This is too low to sustain trees, and the land is treeless tundra.
On the Greenland ice sheet, the temperature is far below freezing throughout the year,[3] and record high temperatures have peaked only slightly above freezing. The record high temperature at Summit Camp is 2.2 °C (36.0 °F).[4]
In the far south of Greenland, there is a very small forest in the Qinngua Valley, due to summer temperatures being barely high enough to sustain trees. There are mountains over 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) high surrounding the valley, which protect it from cold, fast winds travelling across the ice sheet.[5] It is the only natural forest in Greenland, but is only 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) long.
Climate change
[edit]The Greenland ice sheet is 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) thick and broad enough to blanket an area the size of Mexico. The ice is so massive that its weight presses the bedrock of Greenland below sea level and is so all-concealing that not until recently did scientists discover Greenland's Grand Canyon or the possibility that Greenland might actually be three islands.[6]
If the ice melted, the interior bedrock below sea level would be covered by water. It is not clear whether this water would be at sea level or a lake above sea level. If it would be at sea level it could connect to the sea at Ilulissat Icefjord, in Baffin Bay and near Nordostrundingen, creating three large islands.[7] But it is most likely that it would be a lake with one drain.
It is thought that before the last Ice Age, Greenland had mountainous edges and a lowland (and probably very dry) center which drained to the sea via one big river flowing out westwards, past where Disko Island is now.[8]
There is concern about sea level rise caused by ice loss (melt and glaciers falling into the sea) on Greenland. Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was 68–92 km3/a (16–22 cu mi/a), compared to about 60 km3/a (14 cu mi/a) for 1993/4-1998/9. Half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by the movements of some glaciers exceeding the speeds needed to balance upstream snow accumulation.[9] A complete loss of ice on Greenland would cause a sea level rise of as much as 6.40 meters (21.0 ft).
Researchers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Kansas reported in February 2006 that the glaciers are melting twice as fast as they were five years ago. By 2005, Greenland was beginning to lose more ice volume than anyone expected – an annual loss of up to 52 cubic miles or 217 cubic kilometres per year, according to more recent satellite gravity measurements released by JPL. The increased ice loss may be partially offset by increased snow accumulation due to increased precipitation.
Between 1991 and 2006, monitoring of the weather at one location (Swiss Camp) found that the average winter temperature had risen almost 10 °F (5.6 °C).
Recently, Greenland's three largest outlet glaciers have started moving faster, satellite data show. These are the Jakobshavn Isbræ at Ilulissat on the western edge of Greenland, and the Kangerdlugssuaq and Helheim glaciers on the eastern edge of Greenland. The two latter accelerated greatly during the years 2004–2005, but returned to pre-2004 velocities in 2006.[10] The accelerating ice flow has been accompanied by a dramatic increase in seismic activity. In March 2006, researchers at Harvard University and the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University reported that the glaciers now generate swarms of earthquakes up to magnitude 5.0.[6]
The retreat of Greenland's ice is revealing islands that were thought to be part of the mainland. In September 2005 Dennis Schmitt discovered an island 400 miles (644 km) north of the Arctic Circle in eastern Greenland which he named Uunartoq Qeqertaq, Inuit for "warming island".[11]
Future projections
[edit]In the Arctic, temperatures are rising faster than anywhere else in the world. Greenland is losing 200 billion tonnes of ice per year. Research suggests that this could increase the sea levels' rise by 30 centimeters by the end of the century. These projections have the possibility of changing as satellite data only dates back to 40 years ago. This means that researchers must view old photographs of glaciers and compare them to ones taken today to determine the future of Greenland's ice.[12]
Climate data
[edit]Temperature extremes
[edit]| Climate data for Greenland | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 15.3 (59.5) |
16.0 (60.8) |
16.0 (60.8) |
19.1 (66.4) |
24.8 (76.6) |
30.1 (86.2) |
26.3 (79.3) |
25.2 (77.4) |
24.9 (76.8) |
19.3 (66.7) |
21.6 (70.9) |
15.9 (60.6) |
30.1 (86.2) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −66.1 (−87.0) |
−63.3 (−81.9) |
−64.8 (−84.6) |
−57.3 (−71.1) |
−49.0 (−56.2) |
−37.5 (−35.5) |
−33.0 (−27.4) |
−39.2 (−38.6) |
−46.0 (−50.8) |
−55.4 (−67.7) |
−60.0 (−76.0) |
−69.6 (−93.3) |
−69.6 (−93.3) |
| Source 1: Weather Extremes Greenland, retrieved 28 July 2020 (all record lows except for Jan, Mar, May, Dec)(Jan and Feb record highs), Meteo Climat (Mar-Dec highs) | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Georgi, Johannes (1935), Eismitte record low, PANGAEA - Data Publisher for Earth & Environmental Science, doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.604003, retrieved 28 July 2020 (March record low),
May record low at Summit, retrieved 28 July 2020 (May record low), WUnderground, retrieved 28 July 2020 (record low all time) | |||||||||||||
Highest temperatures
[edit]| Month | Temperature | Date | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| January | 15.3 °C (59.5 °F) | 29 January 2003 | Nuuk, Sermersooq |
| February | 16.0 °C (60.8 °F) | 20 February 2005 | Nanortailak, Kujalleq |
| March | 16.0 °C (60.8 °F) | 31 March 1975 | Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq |
| April | 19.1 °C (66.4 °F) | 26 April 2016 | Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq |
| May | 24.8 °C (76.6 °F) | 29 May 2012 | Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq |
| June | 30.1 °C (86.2 °F) | 23 June 1915 | Ivittuut, Sermersooq |
| July | 26.3 °C (79.3 °F) | 6 July 2008 | Nuuk, Sermersooq |
| August | 25.2 °C (77.4 °F) | 3 August 1899 | Tasiilaq, Sermersooq |
| September | 24.9 °C (76.8 °F) | 2 September 2010 | Nuuk, Sermersooq |
| October | 19.3 °C (66.7 °F) | 5 October 2016 | Tasiilaq, Sermersooq |
| November | 21.6 °C (70.9 °F) | 21 November 2015 | Tasiilaq, Sermersooq |
| December | 15.9 °C (60.6 °F) | 21 December 2001 | Narsarsuaq, Kujalleq |
Lowest temperatures
[edit]| Month | Temperature | Date | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| January | −66.1 °C (−87.0 °F) | 9 January 1954 | North Ice, Northeast Greenland |
| February | −63.3 °C (−81.9 °F) | 21 February 2002 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| March | −64.8 °C (−84.6 °F) | 20 March 1931 | Eismitte, Northeast Greenland |
| April | −57.3 °C (−71.1 °F) | 21 April 2011 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| May | −49.0 °C (−56.2 °F) | 9 May 2018 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| June | −37.5 °C (−35.5 °F) | 1 June 2011 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| July | −33.0 °C (−27.4 °F) | 4 July 2017 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| August | −39.2 °C (−38.6 °F) | 29 August 2004 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| September | −46.0 °C (−50.8 °F) | 24 September 2009 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| October | −55.4 °C (−67.7 °F) | 26 October 2018 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| November | −60.0 °C (−76.0 °F) | 26 November 2001 | Summit Camp Station, Northeast Greenland |
| December | −69.6 °C (−93.3 °F) | 22 December 1991 | Klinck Station, Northeast Greenland |
Towns
[edit]| Climate data for Nuuk (Köppen ET) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 15.3 (59.5) |
13.0 (55.4) |
15.2 (59.4) |
14.6 (58.3) |
18.3 (64.9) |
23.8 (74.8) |
26.3 (79.3) |
25.1 (77.2) |
23.8 (74.8) |
19.9 (67.8) |
15.8 (60.4) |
13.3 (55.9) |
26.3 (79.3) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −5.0 (23.0) |
−6.0 (21.2) |
−5.1 (22.8) |
−0.7 (30.7) |
3.9 (39.0) |
8.4 (47.1) |
11.1 (52.0) |
10.2 (50.4) |
6.5 (43.7) |
2.3 (36.1) |
−1.1 (30.0) |
−3.2 (26.2) |
1.8 (35.2) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −7.5 (18.5) |
−8.6 (16.5) |
−7.7 (18.1) |
−3.0 (26.6) |
1.2 (34.2) |
5.0 (41.0) |
7.4 (45.3) |
7.0 (44.6) |
4.0 (39.2) |
0.2 (32.4) |
−3.3 (26.1) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −9.7 (14.5) |
−10.9 (12.4) |
−10.0 (14.0) |
−5.2 (22.6) |
−1.2 (29.8) |
2.0 (35.6) |
4.4 (39.9) |
4.5 (40.1) |
2.0 (35.6) |
−1.8 (28.8) |
−5.3 (22.5) |
−7.7 (18.1) |
−3.3 (26.1) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −32.5 (−26.5) |
−29.6 (−21.3) |
−27.5 (−17.5) |
−30.0 (−22.0) |
−19.0 (−2.2) |
−10.3 (13.5) |
−6.6 (20.1) |
−4.7 (23.5) |
−8.2 (17.2) |
−16.6 (2.1) |
−24.4 (−11.9) |
−25.2 (−13.4) |
−32.5 (−26.5) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 67.1 (2.64) |
51.1 (2.01) |
58.9 (2.32) |
53.3 (2.10) |
57.4 (2.26) |
61.7 (2.43) |
69.3 (2.73) |
90.8 (3.57) |
104.6 (4.12) |
80.5 (3.17) |
79.0 (3.11) |
74.5 (2.93) |
852.6 (33.57) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 13.8 | 12.7 | 15.1 | 13.2 | 13.0 | 10.5 | 12.5 | 12.5 | 14.1 | 13.5 | 14.3 | 14.4 | 159.6 |
| Average snowy days | 13.6 | 12.1 | 14.5 | 11.4 | 9.4 | 2.8 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 4.3 | 9.8 | 12.7 | 13.8 | 104.7 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 73.8 | 74.7 | 74.3 | 78.3 | 81.1 | 85.0 | 85.3 | 86.7 | 82.3 | 76.7 | 73.3 | 73.4 | 78.7 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 15.5 | 65.0 | 148.8 | 180.0 | 189.1 | 204.0 | 195.3 | 164.3 | 141.0 | 80.6 | 30.0 | 6.2 | 1,419.8 |
| Mean daily sunshine hours | 0.5 | 2.3 | 4.8 | 6.0 | 6.1 | 6.8 | 6.3 | 5.3 | 4.7 | 2.6 | 1.0 | 0.2 | 3.9 |
| Source 1: Danish Meteorological Institute[13][14] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Meteo Climat (record highs and lows),[15] Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun 1980–1990),[16] NOAA (humidity 1991-2020)[17] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Kangerlussuaq (Köppen Dfc/ET/BSk) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 12.3 (54.1) |
13.9 (57.0) |
14.4 (57.9) |
17.8 (64.0) |
22.4 (72.3) |
25.2 (77.4) |
26.6 (79.9) |
22.9 (73.2) |
21.1 (70.0) |
17.1 (62.8) |
15.8 (60.4) |
11.9 (53.4) |
26.6 (79.9) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −13.5 (7.7) |
−14.8 (5.4) |
−10.8 (12.6) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
8.4 (47.1) |
15.3 (59.5) |
16.8 (62.2) |
14.0 (57.2) |
7.7 (45.9) |
−0.8 (30.6) |
−7.0 (19.4) |
−10.5 (13.1) |
0.3 (32.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −18.5 (−1.3) |
−19.8 (−3.6) |
−16.6 (2.1) |
−6.2 (20.8) |
3.6 (38.5) |
10.0 (50.0) |
11.2 (52.2) |
8.7 (47.7) |
3.5 (38.3) |
−4.6 (23.7) |
−11.3 (11.7) |
−15.2 (4.6) |
−4.6 (23.7) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −23.3 (−9.9) |
−24.9 (−12.8) |
−22.2 (−8.0) |
−11.6 (11.1) |
−1.7 (28.9) |
4.2 (39.6) |
5.0 (41.0) |
3.3 (37.9) |
−1.0 (30.2) |
−8.7 (16.3) |
−15.7 (3.7) |
−19.9 (−3.8) |
−9.7 (14.5) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −47.2 (−53.0) |
−46.8 (−52.2) |
−45.4 (−49.7) |
−34.4 (−29.9) |
−21.8 (−7.2) |
−4.7 (23.5) |
−0.7 (30.7) |
−4.8 (23.4) |
−15.4 (4.3) |
−29.7 (−21.5) |
−36.3 (−33.3) |
−45.5 (−49.9) |
−47.2 (−53.0) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 7.9 (0.31) |
6.1 (0.24) |
5.2 (0.20) |
7.6 (0.30) |
10.9 (0.43) |
13.4 (0.53) |
27.6 (1.09) |
31.7 (1.25) |
22.7 (0.89) |
13.1 (0.52) |
11.7 (0.46) |
9.8 (0.39) |
167.7 (6.61) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 2.9 | 2.0 | 1.7 | 2.3 | 2.8 | 3.4 | 5.2 | 6.9 | 5.2 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 3.2 | 43.3 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 70.2 | 68.1 | 66.5 | 64.1 | 57.7 | 55.1 | 57.2 | 64.8 | 67.3 | 72.9 | 72.6 | 71.4 | 65.7 |
| Source 1: Danish Meteorological Institute[18][19] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: NOAA[20] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Narsarsuaq (Köppen Dfc/ET) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 14.2 (57.6) |
15.3 (59.5) |
16.5 (61.7) |
19.1 (66.4) |
24.8 (76.6) |
25.2 (77.4) |
24.1 (75.4) |
23.6 (74.5) |
22.4 (72.3) |
18.7 (65.7) |
18.4 (65.1) |
15.9 (60.6) |
25.2 (77.4) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −2.1 (28.2) |
−2.6 (27.3) |
−0.7 (30.7) |
4.9 (40.8) |
10.0 (50.0) |
14.0 (57.2) |
15.7 (60.3) |
14.1 (57.4) |
9.9 (49.8) |
5.1 (41.2) |
0.4 (32.7) |
−1.6 (29.1) |
5.6 (42.1) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −6.1 (21.0) |
−6.5 (20.3) |
−4.7 (23.5) |
1.3 (34.3) |
5.9 (42.6) |
9.6 (49.3) |
11.1 (52.0) |
9.8 (49.6) |
6.1 (43.0) |
1.5 (34.7) |
−3.3 (26.1) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
1.6 (34.9) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −10.5 (13.1) |
−11.1 (12.0) |
−9.1 (15.6) |
−2.6 (27.3) |
1.6 (34.9) |
5.1 (41.2) |
6.7 (44.1) |
5.8 (42.4) |
2.3 (36.1) |
−2.0 (28.4) |
−7.3 (18.9) |
−9.8 (14.4) |
−2.6 (27.4) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −39.7 (−39.5) |
−33.7 (−28.7) |
−31.9 (−25.4) |
−23.1 (−9.6) |
−16.7 (1.9) |
−2.9 (26.8) |
0.1 (32.2) |
−0.1 (31.8) |
−5.7 (21.7) |
−17.8 (0.0) |
−26.1 (−15.0) |
−35.9 (−32.6) |
−39.7 (−39.5) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 40.0 (1.57) |
52.3 (2.06) |
37.1 (1.46) |
44.7 (1.76) |
32.8 (1.29) |
44.8 (1.76) |
49.8 (1.96) |
66.3 (2.61) |
80.2 (3.16) |
56.7 (2.23) |
68.2 (2.69) |
39.5 (1.56) |
612.4 (24.11) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 10.0 | 8.2 | 9.5 | 10.4 | 8.8 | 11.1 | 12.5 | 10.6 | 11.2 | 9.8 | 9.6 | 10.1 | 122.0 |
| Average snowy days | 9.3 | 7.6 | 8.6 | 7.6 | 2.7 | 0.5 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 1.3 | 5.5 | 7.6 | 8.9 | 59.8 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 65 | 64 | 66 | 65 | 65 | 69 | 74 | 72 | 69 | 67 | 66 | 65 | 67 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 26 | 65 | 137 | 168 | 177 | 182 | 192 | 156 | 136 | 94 | 44 | 18 | 1,431 |
| Source 1: Danish Meteorological Institute (precipitation days and snowy days 1961–1990 and sunshine 1980–1999)[21][22][23] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Météo Climat (records),[24] NOAA (humidity 1961–1990)[25] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Summit Camp (Köppen EF) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | −11.7 (10.9) |
−11.0 (12.2) |
−12.8 (9.0) |
−1.2 (29.8) |
−1.4 (29.5) |
1.8 (35.2) |
2.2 (36.0) |
0.9 (33.6) |
−2.6 (27.3) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−7.1 (19.2) |
−13.1 (8.4) |
2.2 (36.0) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | −36 (−33) |
−38 (−36) |
−32 (−26) |
−29 (−20) |
−19 (−2) |
−11 (12) |
−11 (12) |
−14 (7) |
−22 (−8) |
−28 (−18) |
−28 (−18) |
−36 (−33) |
−25 (−14) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −43 (−45) |
−42 (−44) |
−41 (−42) |
−33 (−27) |
−23 (−9) |
−15 (5) |
−13 (9) |
−16 (3) |
−26 (−15) |
−34 (−29) |
−36 (−33) |
−40 (−40) |
−30 (−22) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −48 (−54) |
−46 (−51) |
−45 (−49) |
−40 (−40) |
−30 (−22) |
−19 (−2) |
−15 (5) |
−21 (−6) |
−29 (−20) |
−39 (−38) |
−42 (−44) |
−48 (−54) |
−35 (−31) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −61.2 (−78.2) |
−63.3 (−81.9) |
−61.2 (−78.2) |
−57.3 (−71.1) |
−47.4 (−53.3) |
−37.5 (−35.5) |
−33.0 (−27.4) |
−39.2 (−38.6) |
−46.0 (−50.8) |
−51.4 (−60.5) |
−60.0 (−76.0) |
−63.0 (−81.4) |
−63.3 (−81.9) |
| Source: [26][27] | |||||||||||||
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b "DMI Report 18–19: Climatological Standard Normals 1981–2010 Denmark, The Faroe Islands and Greenland Based on Data Published in DMI Reports 18–08, 18–04 and 18–05" (PDF). Danish Meteorological Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ "Iqaluit A". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada. 31 October 2011. Climate ID: 2402590. Archived from the original on May 16, 2017. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
- ^ Shuman, Christopher A.; Steffen, Konrad; Box, Jason E.; Stearns, Charles R. (2001). "A Dozen Years of Temperature Observations at the Summit: Central Greenland Automatic Weather Stations 1987–99". Journal of Applied Meteorology. 40 (4). American Meteorological Society: 741–752. Bibcode:2001JApMe..40..741S. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(2001)040<0741:adyoto>2.0.co;2. hdl:11603/24315. ISSN 0894-8763.
- ^ "Vejrekstremer Grønland". Danish Meteorological Institute (in Danish). Archived from the original on 2021-12-27. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
- ^ "Qinngua Valley". Wondermondo. 23 June 2013. Retrieved 2015-01-20.
- ^ a b "Greenland's Ice Sheet Is Slip-Sliding Away", Los Angeles Times, June 25, 2006
- ^ "Is the world's fastest-moving glacier set to speed up even more?". Center for Environmental Journalism. October 23, 2010. Archived from the original on December 3, 2011.
- ^ "Arts and Culture Archives".
- ^ Krabill, W., et al., 2004, Greenland Ice Sheet: increased Coastal Thinning, Geophysical Research Letters, 31 L24402
- ^ Howat, Ian M.; Joughin, Ian R.; Scambos, Ted A. (8 February 2007). "Rapid Changes in Ice Discharge from Greenland Outlet Glaciers". Science. 315 (5818): 1559–61. Bibcode:2007Sci...315.1559H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.395.1108. doi:10.1126/science.1138478. PMID 17289940. S2CID 27719836.
- ^ "The Warming of Greenland", New York Times, January 16, 2007
- ^ "180,000 forgotten photos reveal the future of Greenland’s ice", Nature, July 27, 2016
- ^ "Klimanormaler Grønland" (PDF). DMI (in Danish). Archived from the original on 2024-02-17. Retrieved 2021-11-26.
- ^ "The Observed Climate of Greenland, 1958–99 with Climatological Standard Normals, 1961–90" (PDF). Danish Meteorological Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-02-17. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
- ^ "Station Nuuk" (in French). Météo Climat. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ "Klimatafel von Godthaab (Nuuk) / Grönland (zu Dänemark)" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-02-17. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
- ^ "Nuuk Climate Normals 1991-2020". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2024-02-17. Retrieved August 11, 2023.
- ^ "Klimanormaler Grønland". DMI (in Danish). Retrieved 2023-02-28.
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- ^ "NOAA".
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