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Syrian Arab Republic
اَلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة (Arabic)
al-Jumhūriyya al-ʿArabiyya as-Sūriyya
1963–2024
Flag of Syria
Flag
(1980–2024)
Coat of arms
(1980–2024)
Motto: وَحْدَةٌ، حُرِّيَّةٌ، اِشْتِرَاكِيَّةٌ
Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya
"Unity, Freedom, Socialism"
Anthem: حُمَاةَ الدِّيَارِ
Ḥumāt ad-Diyār
"Guardians of the Homeland"

Syria proper shown in dark green; Syria's territorial claims over the most of Turkey's Hatay Province and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights shown in light green
Capital
and largest city
Damascus
33°30′N 36°18′E / 33.500°N 36.300°E / 33.500; 36.300
Official languagesArabic[1]
Ethnic groups
(2024)[2][3][4]
90% Arabs
9% Kurds
1% others
Religion
(2024)[2]
Demonym(s)Syrian
GovernmentUnitary neo-Ba'athist presidential republic[5]
President 
• 1963
Lu'ay al-Atassi
• 1963–1966
Amin al-Hafiz
• 1966–1970
Nureddin al-Atassi
• 1970–1971
Ahmad al-Khatib (acting)
• 1971–2000
Hafez al-Assad
• 2000
Abdul Halim Khaddam (acting)
• 2000–2024
Bashar al-Assad
Prime Minister 
• 1963 (first)
Salah al-Din al-Bitar
• 2024 (last)
Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali
Vice President 
• 1963–1964 (first)
Muhammad Umran
• 2006–2024 (last)
Najah al-Attar
• 2024 (last)
Faisal Mekdad
LegislaturePeople's Assembly
Historical era
8 March 1963
21–23 February 1966
5-10 June 1967
13 November 1970
6–25 October 1973
• Occupation of
Lebanon began
1 June 1976
1976–1982
2000–2001
30 April 2005
• Civil war began
15 March 2011
8 December 2024
Area
• Total
185,180[7] km2 (71,500 sq mi) (87th)
• Water (%)
1.1
Population
• 2024 estimate
Increase 25,000,753[8] (57th)
• Density
118.3/km2 (306.4/sq mi) (70th)
GDP (PPP)2015 estimate
• Total
$50.28 billion[9]
• Per capita
$2,900[9]
GDP (nominal)2020 estimate
• Total
$11.08 billion[9]
• Per capita
$533
Gini (2022)Positive decrease 26.6[10]
low inequality
HDI (2022)Steady 0.557[11]
medium (157th)
CurrencySyrian pound (SYP)
Time zoneUTC+3 (Arabia Standard Time)
Calling code+963
ISO 3166 codeSY
Internet TLD.sy
سوريا.
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
1963
Second Syrian Republic
2019
Territory of the Islamic State
1967
Golan Heights
1974
UNDOF
2014
North and East Syria
2024
Syrian Interim Government
Syrian Salvation Government
Today part ofSyria
Israel (de facto)[a]

Ba'athist Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR),[b] was the Syrian state between 1963 and 2024 under the rule of the Syrian regional branch of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. From 1971 until 2024, it was headed by the Assad family, and was therefore commonly referred to as the Assad regime.

The state emerged in the wake of the 1963 Syrian coup d'état and was led by Alawite military officers. President Salah Jadid was overthrown by Hafez al-Assad in the 1970 Corrective Revolution. Resistance against Assad’s rule led to the 1982 Hama massacre. Hafez al-Assad died in 2000 and was succeeded by his son Bashar al-Assad. Protests against Ba'athist rule in 2011 during the Arab Spring led to the Syrian civil war, which weakened the Ba'athist government's territorial control. In December 2024, a series of surprise offensives by various rebel factions culminated in the regime's collapse. Russia stated that al-Assad fled to Moscow and was granted asylum for humanitarian reasons.[12]

History

1963 coup

Main article: 1963 Syrian coup d'état
Neo-Ba'athist military officers celebrating the downfall of Second Syrian Republic after seizing power from its last democratically-elected president Nazim al-Qudsi in 1963.

After the 1961 coup that terminated the political union between Egypt and Syria, the instability which followed eventually culminated in the 8 March 1963 Ba'athist coup. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The new Syrian cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.[13][14] Since the 1963 seizure of power by its Military Committee, the Ba'ath party ruled Syria as a totalitarian state. Ba'athists took control over country's politics, education, culture, religion and surveilled all aspects of civil society through its powerful Mukhabarat (secret police). Syrian Arab Armed forces and secret police were integrated with the Ba'ath party apparatus; after the purging of traditional civilian and military elites by the new regime.[15]

The 1963 Ba'athist coup marked a "radical break" in modern Syrian history, after which Ba'ath party monopolised power in the country to establish a one-party state and shaped a new socio-political order by enforcing its state ideology.[16] Soon after seizing power, the neo-Ba'athist military officers began initiating purges across Syria as part of the imposition of their ideological programme. Politicians of the Second Syrian Republic who had supported the seperation of Syria from United Arab Republic (UAR) were purged and liquidated by the Ba'athists. This was in addition to purging of the Syrian military and its subordination to the Arab Socialist Ba'ath party. Politicians, military officers and civilians who supported Syria's secession from UAR were also stripped of their social and legal rights by the Ba'athist-controlled National Council for the Revolutionary Command (NCRC); thereby enabling the Ba'athist regime to dismantle the entire political class of the Second Syrian Republic and eliminate its institutions.[17]

1966 coup

Main article: 1966 Syrian coup d'état

On 23 February 1966, the neo-Ba'athist Military Committee carried out an intra-party rebellion against the Ba'athist Old Guard (Aflaq and Bitar), imprisoned President Amin al-Hafiz and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.[14] Although Nureddin al-Atassi became the formal head of state, Salah Jadid was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until November 1970,[18] when he was deposed by Hafez al-Assad, who at the time was Minister of Defense.[19]

The coup led to the schism within the original pan-Arab Ba'ath Party: one Iraqi-led ba'ath movement (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement was established. In the first half of 1967, a low-key state of war existed between Syria and Israel. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the Demilitarized Zone led to 7 April pre-war aerial clashes between Israel and Syria.[20] When the Six-Day War broke out between Egypt and Israel, Syria joined the war and attacked Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the Golan Heights in under 48 hours.[21] The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.[22] Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Yasser Arafat during the "Black September" (also known as the Jordan Civil War of 1970) hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.[23]

Hafez al-Assad (1970–2000)

Main articles: Corrective Movement (Syria) and Presidency of Hafez al-Assad
Hafez al-Assad, president of Ba'athist Syria (1970–2000)
Ruins of Hama city in the aftermath of the Hama massacre in 1982.

The power struggle culminated in the November 1970 Syrian Corrective movement, a bloodless military coup that removed Jadid and installed Hafez al-Assad as the strongman of the government.[19] General Hafez al-Assad transformed a neo-Ba'athist party state into a totalitarian dictatorship marked by his pervasive grip on the party, armed forces, secret police, media, education sector, religious and cultural spheres and all aspects of civil society. He assigned Alawite loyalists to key posts in the military forces, bureaucracy, intelligence and the ruling elite. A cult of personality revolving around Hafiz and his family became a core tenet of Assadist ideology,[24] which espoused that Assad dynasty was destined to rule perennially.[25]

When Hafez al-Assad came to power in 1971, the army began to modernize and change. In the first 10 years of Assad's rule, the army increased by 162%, and by 264% by 2000. At one point, 70% of the country's GDP went only to the army. On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel. The Israel Defense Forces reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.[26] The village of Quneitra was largely destroyed by the Israeli army. In the late 1970s, an Islamist uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 Hama massacre,[27] when more than 40,000 people were killed by Syrian military troops and Ba'athist paramilitaries.[28][29] It has been described as the "single deadliest act" of violence perpetrated by any state upon its own population in modern Arab history[28][29]

Syrian invasion of Lebanon began on 31 May 1976. Syrian occupation of Lebanon lasted until 2005.

Syria was invited into Lebanon by its president, Suleiman Frangieh, in 1976, to intervene on the side of the Lebanese government against Palestine Liberation Organization guerilla fighters and Lebanese Maronite forces amid the Lebanese Civil War. The Arab Deterrent Force originally consisted of a Syrian core, up to 25,000 troops, with participation by some other Arab League states totaling only around 5,000 troops.[30][31][32] In late 1978, after the Arab League had extended the mandate of the Arab Deterrent Force, the Sudanese, the Saudis and the United Arab Emirates announced intentions to withdraw troops from Lebanon, extending their stay into the early months of 1979 at the Lebanese government's request.[33] The Libyan troops were essentially abandoned and had to find their own way home, and the ADF thereby became a purely Syrian force, although it did include the Palestine Liberation Army.[34] A year after Israel invaded and occupied Southern Lebanon during the 1982 Lebanon War, the Lebanese government failed to extend the ADF's mandate, thereby effectively ending its existence, although not the Syrian or Israeli military presence in Lebanon.[35] Eventually the Syrian presence became known as the Syrian occupation of Lebanon.

Syrian forces lingered in Lebanon throughout the civil war in Lebanon, eventually bringing most of the nation under Syrian control as part of a power struggle with Israel, which had occupied areas of southern Lebanon in 1978. In 1985, Israel began to withdraw from Lebanon, as a result of domestic opposition in Israel and international pressure.[36] In the aftermath of this withdrawal, the War of the Camps broke out, with Syria fighting their former Palestinian allies. The Syrian occupation of Lebanon continued until 2005.[37]

In a major shift in relations with both other Arab states and the Western world, Syria participated in the United States-led Gulf War against Saddam Hussein. The country participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel along with Palestine and Jordan. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in 2000.[38]

Bashar al-Assad (2000–2024)

Main article: Presidency of Bashar al-Assad
Cedar Revolution demonstrators in Lebanon, marching against Assad regime's military occupation in Lebanon after the killing of Rafic Hariri

Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, was elected president in an election in which he ran unopposed.[13] His election saw the birth of the Damascus Spring and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001, the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.[39] Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.[24][40][41] On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad.[42] In March 2004, Syrian Kurds and Arabs clashed in the northeastern city of al-Qamishli. Signs of rioting were seen in the cities of Qamishli and Hasakeh.[43] In 2005, Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon.[44] Assassination of Rafic Hariri in 2005 led to international condemnation and triggered a popular Intifada in Lebanon, known as "the Cedar Revolution" which forced the Assad regime to withdraw its 20,000 Syrian soldiers in Lebanon and end its 29-year-long military occupation of Lebanon.[45][37] On 6 September 2007, foreign jet fighters, suspected as Israeli, reportedly carried out Operation Orchard against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians.[46]

Revolution and civil war

Main articles: Syrian revolution and Syrian civil war
Hundreds of thousands of Syrian protesters gather in Hama on 22 July 2011 during the outbreak of Syrian Revolution, chanting the rallying slogan of the Arab Spring: "Ash-shaʻb yurīd isqāṭ an-niẓām" (Arabic: الشعب يريد إسقاط النظام, lit. 'The people want to bring down the regime!')
Military situation in December 2015. Islamic State-controlled territory is in grey.

The Syrian revolution began in 2011 as a part of the wider Arab Spring, a wave of upheaval throughout the Arab World. Public demonstrations across Syria began on 26 January 2011 and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad, the overthrow of his government, and an end to nearly five decades of Ba’ath Party rule. Since spring 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising, and several cities were besieged,[47][48] though the unrest continued. According to some witnesses, soldiers, who refused to open fire on civilians, were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.[49] The Syrian government denied reports of defections, and blamed armed gangs for causing trouble.[50] Since early autumn 2011, civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, which began an insurgency campaign against the Syrian Army. The insurgents unified under the banner of the Free Syrian Army and fought in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacked an organized leadership.[51]

Pro-Assad demonstration in the capital Damascus after US-led missile strikes in April 2018

The uprising has sectarian undertones, though neither faction in the conflict has described sectarianism as playing a major role. The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are Alawites,[51] affiliated with Shia Islam. As a result, the opposition is winning support from the Sunni Muslim states, whereas the government is publicly supported by the Shia dominated Iran and the Lebanese Hezbollah. According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 13,470–19,220 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 6,035–6,570 armed combatants from both sides[52][53][54][55] and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.[56] Many more have been injured, and tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned. According to the Syrian government, 9,815–10,146 people, including 3,430 members of the security forces, 2,805–3,140 insurgents and up to 3,600 civilians, have been killed in fighting with what they characterize as "armed terrorist groups."[57] To escape the violence, tens of thousands of Syrian refugees have fled the country to neighboring Jordan, Iraq and [58] Lebanon, as well to Turkey.[59] The total official UN numbers of Syrian refugees reached 42,000 at the time,[60] while unofficial number stood at as many as 130,000.

Aerial view of Damascus in 2020

UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed in the 11 months until February 2012,[61][62] Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.[63][64] Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government.[65] Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.[66] Human Rights Watch accused the government and Shabiha of using civilians as human shields when they advanced on opposition held-areas.[67] Anti-government rebels have been accused of human rights abuses as well, including torture, kidnapping, unlawful detention and execution of civilians, Shabiha and soldiers.[51] HRW also expressed concern at the kidnapping of Iranian nationals.[68] The UN Commission of Inquiry has also documented abuses of this nature in its February 2012 report, which also includes documentation that indicates rebel forces have been responsible for displacement of civilians.[69]

Being ranked 8th last on the 2024 Global Peace Index and 4th worst in the 2024 Fragile States Index,[70] Syria is one of the most dangerous places for journalists. Freedom of press is extremely limited, and the country is ranked 2nd worst in the 2024 World Press Freedom Index.[71][72] Syria is the most corrupt country in the Middle East[73][74] and was ranked the 2nd lowest globally on the 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index.[75] The country has also become the epicentre of a state-sponsored multi-billion dollar illicit drug cartel, the largest in the world.[76][77][78][79] The civil war has resulted in more than 600,000 deaths,[80] with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of the total civilian casualties.[c] The war led to a massive refugee crisis, with an estimated 7.6 million internally displaced people (July 2015 UNHCR figure) and over 5 million refugees (July 2017 registered by UNHCR).[89] The war has also worsened economic conditions, with more than 90% of the population living in poverty and 80% facing food insecurity.[d]

The Arab League, the United States, the European Union states, the Gulf Cooperation Council states, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters.[51] China and Russia have avoided condemning the government or applying sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention. However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.[94][95][96] The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,[97] but sent an observer mission in December 2011, as part of its proposal for peaceful resolution of the crisis.[96] The latest attempts to resolve the crisis had been made through the appointment of Kofi Annan, as a special envoy to resolve the Syrian crisis in the Middle East.[51] Some analysts however have posited the partitioning the region into a Sunnite east, Kurdish north and Shiite/Alawite west.[98]

Fall of the Assad regime (2024)

See also: 2024 Syrian opposition offensives and Fall of the Assad regime
Military situation after the fall of the regime in December 2024.
Territories held by the SDF (yellow), IS (grey), the Syrian Army (red), the SNA and Turkey (light green), SOR (pink), Tahrir al-Sham (white), the SFA and the United States (teal).

On 27 November 2024, violence flared up once again. Rebel factions, led by the Islamist group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army (SNA), had taken control of Aleppo, prompting a retaliatory airstrike campaign by Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, supported by Russia. The strikes, which targeted population centers and several hospitals in rebel-held city of Idlib, resulted in at least 25 deaths, according to the White Helmets rescue group. The NATO countries issued a joint statement calling for the protection of civilians and critical infrastructure to prevent further displacement and ensure humanitarian access. They stressed the urgent need for a Syrian-led political solution, in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 2254, which advocates for dialogue between the Syrian government and opposition forces. The rebel offensive, which had begun on 27 November 2024, continued its advance into Hama Province following their capture of Aleppo.[99][100][101]

On 29 November, rebels affiliated to the Southern Front abandoned their reconciliation efforts with the Syrian government and launched an offensive in the South, in the hope of implementing a pincer movement against Damascus.[102][103]

On 4 December 2024, fierce clashes erupted in Hama province as the Syrian army engaged Islamist-led insurgents in a bid to halt their advance on the key city of Hama. Government forces claimed to have launched a counteroffensive with air support, pushing back rebel factions, including Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), around six miles from the city. However, despite reinforcements, the rebels captured the city on 5 December.[104] The fighting led to widespread displacement, with nearly 50,000 people fleeing the area and over 600 casualties reported, including 104 civilians.[105]

In the evening of 6 December 2024, Southern Front forces captured the regional capital of Suwayda, in southern Syria, following the pro-government forces' withdrawal from the city.[106][107] Concurrently, the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces captured the provincial capital of Deir ez-Zor from pro-government forces, which also left the town of Palmyra in central Homs Governorate.[108][109] By midnight, opposition forces in the southern Daraa Governorate captured its capital Daraa, as well as 90% of the province, as pro-government forces withdrew towards the capital Damascus.[110] Meanwhile, the Syrian Free Army (SFA), a different rebel group backed by the United States took control of Palmyra in an offensive launched from the al-Tanf "deconfliction zone".[111]

On 7 December 2024, pro-government forces withdrew from the Quneitra Governorate, which borders the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.[112] That day, the Israeli army helped the UNDOF repel an attack.[113]

"Victory of the great Syrian revolution and the fall of the criminal al-Assad regime" on Syrian state TV after the fall of Damascus to the HTS. This was its sole broadcast for several hours.[114]

On 7 December 2024, the Southern Front entered the suburbs of Damascus, which was simultaneously attacked from the North by the Syrian Free Army. As the rebels advanced, Assad fled Damascus to Moscow, where he was granted political asylum by Russian president Vladimir Putin.[115][additional citation(s) needed] The next day, the Syrian opposition forces captured the cities of Homs and Damascus. After Damascus fell, the Syrian Arab Republic collapsed, and Prime Minister Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali established a transitional government with the rebels' permission.[116]

Politics and government

Main article: Politics of Ba'athist Syria

Since the 1963 seizure of power by its neo-Ba'athist Military Committee until the fall of the Assad regime in 2024, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party governed Syria as a totalitarian police state.[e] After a period of intra-party strife, Hafez al-Assad gained control of the party following the 1970 coup d'état and his family dominated the country's politics.[2][117][118]

After Ba'athist Syria's adoption of a new constitution in 2012, its political system operated in the framework of a presidential state[119] that nominally permitted the candidacy of individuals who were not part of the Ba'athist-controlled National Progressive Front founded in 1972.[120][121] In practice, Ba'athist Syria remained a one-party state, which banned any independent or opposition political activity.[122][123]

Judiciary

There was no independent judiciary in the Syrian Arab Republic, since all judges and prosecutors were required to be Ba'athist appointees.[124] Syria's judicial branches included the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial Council, the Court of Cassation, and the State Security Courts. The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.[125] Syria had three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious courts handled questions of personal and family law.[126]

Article 3(2) of the 1973 constitution declared Islamic jurisprudence a main source of legislation. The judicial system had elements of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws. The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) was essentially a codified sharia;[127] the Code of Personal Status was applied to Muslims by sharia courts.[128]

Elections

Elections were conducted through a sham process; characterised by wide-scale rigging, repetitive voting and absence of voter registration and verification systems.[129][130][131] Parliamentary elections were held on 13 April 2016 in the government-controlled areas of Syria, for all 250 seats of Syria's unicameral legislature, the Majlis al-Sha'ab, or the People's Council of Syria.[132] Even before results had been announced, several nations, including Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom, declared their refusal to accept the results, largely citing it "not representing the will of the Syrian people."[133] However, representatives of the Russian Federation have voiced their support of this election's results. Various independent observers and international organizations denounced the Assad regime's electoral conduct as a scam; with the United Nations condemning it as illegitimate elections with "no mandate".[134][135][136][137] Electoral Integrity Project's 2022 Global report designated Syrian elections as a "facade" with the worst electoral integrity in the world alongside Comoros and Central African Republic.[138][139]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ While Israel militarily controls most of the Golan Heights and effectively annexed in 1981 the areas it controlled following the 1974 disengagement agreement with Syria, this control of the Golan Heights is not recognized internationally by any country other than the United States.
  2. ^ Arabic: اَلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة, romanized: al-Jumhūriyya al-ʿArabiyya as-Sūriyya; or the Syrian Arabic Republic
  3. ^ Sources:[81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88]
  4. ^ [90][91][92][93]
  5. ^ Sources describing Syria as a totalitarian state:
    • Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    • Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I. B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
    • Meininghaus, Esther (2016). "Introduction". Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I. B. Tauris. pp. 1–33. ISBN 978-1-78453-115-7.
    • Sadiki, Larbi; Fares, Obaida (2014). "12: The Arab Spring Comes to Syria: Internal Mobilization for Democratic Change, Militarization and Internationalization". Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization. Routledge. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-415-52391-2.

References

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  2. ^ a b c "Syria: People and society". The World Factbook. CIA. 10 May 2022. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
  3. ^ "Syria (10/03)".
  4. ^ "Syria's Religious, Ethnic Groups". 20 December 2012.
  5. ^
  6. ^
    • Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    • Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I. B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
    • Ahmed, Saladdin (2019). Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura. Albany, New York: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. ISBN 9781438472911.
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  11. ^ "HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023-24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. pp. 274–277. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  12. ^ "Bashar al-Assad and family given asylum in Moscow, Russian media say". BBC News. 8 December 2024. Retrieved 15 December 2024.
  13. ^ a b "Background Note: Syria". United States Department of State, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, May 2007. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
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  15. ^ Wieland, Carsten (2021). Syria and the Neutrality Trap. New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
  16. ^ Atassi, Karim (2018). "6: The Fourth Republic". Syria, the Strength of an Idea: The Constitutional Architectures of Its Political Regimes. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 252. doi:10.1017/9781316872017. ISBN 978-1-107-18360-5.
  17. ^ Atassi, Karim (2018). Syria, the Strength of an Idea: The Constitutional Architectures of Its Political Regimes. New York, NY 10006, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 258. doi:10.1017/9781316872017. ISBN 978-1-107-18360-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
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  19. ^ a b Seale, Patrick (1988). Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06976-3.
  20. ^ Mark A. Tessler (1994). A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 382. ISBN 978-0-253-20873-6.
  21. ^ "A Campaign for the Books". Time. 1 September 1967. Archived from the original on 15 December 2008.
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