User:Gog the Mild/Battle of Preston (1648)

For the battle of the Jacobite rising of 1715, see Battle of Preston (1715).

Battle of Preston
Part of the Second English Civil War
Date 17 August 1648 Location Preston, Lancashire Result Parliamentarian victory
Belligerents
Engagers English Royalists	Parliamentarians
Commanders and leaders
Duke of Hamilton Earl of Callendar Earl of Middleton William Baillie Marmaduke Langdale	Oliver Cromwell John Lambert
Strength
c.24,000, not all of whom were engaged	11,200, of whom 9,000 were engaged
Casualties and losses
c. 1,000 killed c. 5,000 captured	Fewer than 100 killed Several hundred wounded
Preston class=notpageimage| Lancashire

Primary sources

The three most useful accounts of the short campaign which included the battles of Preston and Winwick were written by Oliver Cromwell, commander of the Parliamentarian army; Marmaduke Langdale, commander of the English Royalists who bore the brunt of the fighting at Preston; and John Hodgson, a lieutenant in a Parliamentarian infantry regiment. The first two accounts were written shortly after the campaign, while Hodgson wrote his memoirs in 1683. Cromwell was the only one of the three present at Winwick. There is also a letter by the Parliamentarian cavalry officer Major John Sanderson giving details of his participation in the battle and an account of it written by the Royalist James Heath in 1661. Two partial accounts of the campaign were written by senior Scottish commanders in the 1670s.

Opposing forces

Infantry

Infantry formations, equipment and tactics were similar in both armies. The basic tactical formation was the regiment, which varied greatly in size. An infantry regiment was usually made up of 10 equally sizes companies and typically had a nominal or establishment strength of 800 or 1,000 men; this was rarely met. Each was composed of both musketmen and pikemen.

The musketeers were armed with muskets possessing 4-foot-long (1.2 m) barrels and, mostly, matchlock firing mechanisms. These relied on the glowing end of a length of slow match, thin cord soaked in saltpetre, igniting the weapon's priming powder when the trigger was pulled. These were reliable and robust weapons, but their effectiveness was severely reduced in poor weather. Keeping the slow match burning at all times resulted in the consumption of a vast amount, while dowsing it rendered the musket useless. Balancing combat readiness against logistical capability called for fine judgement from a regiment's officers. A few musketeers on each side were equipped with the more reliable flintlock muskets. In 1648 musket tactics were in transition from firing one rank at a time so as to maintain a steady fire, to the entire unit discharging a volley simultaneously for shock effect. A well-trained musketman took approximately 40 seconds to reload and would carry ten rounds of ammunition.

Civil War reenactors

Pikemen were equipped with pikes: long wooden shafts tipped with steel points. Pikes as issued were normally 18-foot-long (5.5 m), but on the march they were commonly cut down to a more wieldy 15 feet (4.6 m) or so. The pikemen carried basic swords and typically wore steel helmets but no other armour; in some regiments a small number of pikemen, usually those in the front rank, would have also worn body armour. Military manuals of the time suggested a ratio of two musketeers for each pikeman, but in practice commanders usually attempted to maximise the number of musketeers and a higher ratio was the rule.

Both armies organised their infantry regiments into brigades of three regiments each, which doctrine suggested be deployed two regiments abreast, with the third behind as a reserve. The men in each unit would form up four or five ranks deep and in a relatively loose formation, with about 1 metre (3.3 ft) of frontage per file; so an infantry regiment of 600 might form up 120 men wide and 5 deep, giving it a frontage of 120 metres (390 ft) and a depth of 5 metres (16 ft). The pikemen would be placed in the centre of a formation, in a "stand", with the musketmen divided on each side. The usual tactic against infantry was for the musketmen to fire on their opponents and once it was thought they had been sufficiently weakened or demoralised the stand of pikemen would advance, attempting to break through the enemy centre. This was known as a "push of the pike". The musketmen would also advance, engaging the enemy with their musket butts, which were steel-plated for this purpose, and attempting to envelop the opposing formation.

Against cavalry, doctrine called for infantry units to tighten the spacing between their files to approximately 45 centimetres (18 in) per man and to advance steadily. To be effective against infantry, cavalry needed to break into their formation, and if the men were packed together this was not possible. It was accepted that so long as the morale of the infantry held, cavalry could do little against the front of such a formation. However, the flanks and rear were increasingly vulnerable when the infantry packed more closely together, as this made manoeuvring or turning the unit more difficult.

Cavalry

An English lobster-tailed pot helmet c. 1630–1640, with neck protection (the "lobster tail"), three-barred face protection, a peak and a longitudinal comb on the skull; the hinged cheekpieces are missing

Most of the Parliamentarian cavalry were mounted on large, for the time, horses. The cavalrymen all wore metal lobster-tailed pot helmets which protected the head and, usually, the neck, cheeks and, to an extent, face; and thigh-length boots. Body armour – a cuirass (metal chest and back plates) – was worn by most cavalrymen, although many relied on just a jacket of thick uncured leather. They were each armed with two pistols and a sword. The pistols were 18 inches (46 cm) to 24 inches (61 cm) long and had a very limited effective range. Most but not all cavalry pistols had flintlock firing mechanisms, which were more reliable in damp or windy weather than matchlock mechanisms. Flintlock mechanisms were more expensive than matchlock ones and were usually reserved for the cavalry, who found igniting and using the slow match while controlling a horse inconvenient. The swords were straight, 3-foot-long (90 cm) and effective at both cutting and thrusting.

The Royalist cavalry were similarly equipped, with helmets, pistols, swords and body armour, although many of the Scots bore lances rather than pistols. Scottish horses were smaller and lighter than their English equivalents; this gave them greater manoeuvrability but put them at a disadvantage in a face-to-face confrontation. The Scottish cavalry were well mounted, but inexperienced and ill disciplined. Parliamentarian cavalry tactics were intended to use their strengths. They would advance in a tight formation, with their riders' legs interlocked, at no faster than a trot – to maintain formation. They would discharge their pistols at very short range and upon coming into contact attempt to use the sheer weight of their mounts and the mass of their formation to force back their opponents and burst through their ranks. Royalist cavalry were more likely to charge at a faster pace and in a looser formation.

Both armies contained dragoons. These had originated as mounted infantry, using horses to increase their operational mobility and dismounting to fight with pikes or muskets. By 1648 they had largely become specialist mounted troops; none carried pikes. The Parliamentarian dragoons were in the process of exchanging their muskets for carbines (shorter-barrelled versions of muskets, more wieldy for carrying on, or even firing from, horseback) or, occasionally, pistols. Scottish dragoons were also partway through this transformation and carried both matchlock muskets and cavalry swords. Dragoons usually acted as scouts, or formed their army's rearguard.

Artillery

The Parliamentarian forces involved in the battle possessed no artillery. The Royalist army did not have the normal artillery train, although several Scottish infantry regiments had light-weight, small-calibre cannon to supplement the fire of their musketmen, for a total of about 20 pieces.

Numbers

According to Bull and Seed, the force from the New Model Army commanded by Cromwell consisted of about 2,900 infantry and 2,300 cavalry. The Northern Association Army under Lambert added some 800 infantry and 900 cavalry. The numbers of Lancashire Militia available are less certainly known but have been estimated at approximately 1,600 infantry and 500 cavalry. This gives an estimated Parliamentarian strength at Preston of 9,000 men: 5,300 infantry and 3,700 cavalry. In addition further forces totalling around 2,100 men – all infantry – were within two days march of Preston on the day of battle, and some were involved in the post-battle mopping up. Malcolm Wanklyn broadly agrees, estimating that Cromwell had 8,000 – 9,000 men available to him as a field force, while Brooks follows Cromwell's figures and specifies 8,600. Most of these men were seasoned veterans, well trained and with experience of battle.

The main Scottish army under Hamilton is difficult to enumerate as nearly all of the Scottish units were under strength, some seriously so. It probably contained some 12,000 infantry and 3,500 cavalry. Not all of these took part in the battle. The make up of the separate, nominally Scottish, force under Munro is even less clear, but it probably consisted of about 1,800 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. None of Munro's men fought at Preston. The English Royalist component under Langdale and Musgrave added perhaps 4,500 infantry and 1,200 cavalry, many ill-armed and inadequately trained. This gave a total of roughly 24,000: 18,300 infantry and 5,700 cavalry available to Hamilton. The Scots as a whole were unenthusiastic about another round of warfare and had difficulty raising troops. Some regiments had barely half their establishment and at that more than half were new recruits, lacking both experience and adequate training. A contemporary exaggerated that "not a fifth man could handle a pike."

Background

Main articles: Bishops' Wars and First English Civil War

In 1639, and again in 1640, Charles I, who was king of both Scotland and England in a personal union, went to war with his Scottish subjects in the Bishops' Wars. These had arisen from the Scots' refusal to accept Charles's attempts to reform the Scottish Kirk to bring it into line with English religious practices. Charles was not successful in these endeavours and the ensuing settlement with his Scottish Parliament in 1641 severely limited his powers. After years of rising tensions the relationship between Charles and his English Parliament broke down, starting the First English Civil War in 1642.

Charles I

In England Charles's supporters, the Royalists, were opposed by the combined forces of the Parliamentarians and the Scots. In 1643 the latter pair formed an alliance bound by the Solemn League and Covenant. After four years of war the Royalists were defeated and Charles surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646. The Scots agreed with the English Parliament on a peace settlement which would be put before the King. Known as the Newcastle Propositions, the Scots spent months trying to persuade Charles to agree to them but he refused. The Scots eventually handed Charles over to the English Parliamentary forces in exchange for a financial settlement and left England on 3 February 1647.

Charles then engaged in separate negotiations with different factions. Presbyterian English Parliamentarians and the Scots wanted him to accept a modified version of the Newcastle Propositions, but in June 1647 a junior army officer seized Charles and the army council pressed him to accept the Heads of Proposals, a less demanding set of terms. He rejected these as well and instead signed an offer known as the Engagement, which had been thrashed out with the Scottish delegation, on 26 December 1647. Charles agreed to confirm the Solemn League and Covenant by Act of Parliament in both kingdoms, and other conditions, in return for the Scots' assistance in enforcing his claim to the English throne.

When the Scottish delegation returned to Edinburgh with the Engagement, the Scots were bitterly divided on whether to ratify its terms. After a protracted political struggle those in favour of it, known as the Engagers, gained a majority in the Scottish Parliament and on 11 April 1648 repudiated the 1643 treaty with the Parliamentarians. On 29 April, they seized the English border town of Carlisle.

War

For broader coverage of this topic, see Second English Civil War.

Oliver Cromwell

Meanwhile, the coalition of interests which had cohered on the Parliamentarian side during the first war fractured in 1647. There were risings in support of the Royalist cause in England and Wales and mutinies by Parliamentarian garrisons. These were especially serious in Kent, Essex and South Wales and marked the start of the Second English Civil War. Six English warships defected to the Royalists. The most reliable military force the Parliamentarian leaders had at their disposal was the New Model Army. This had been split into garrisons across the country; its commander, Sir Thomas Fairfax, based in London, put down the revolt in Kent on 1 June at the fiercely fought Battle of Maidstone. He then moved into Essex and began an eleven-week siege of Colchester. In South Wales the Parliamentarians faced mutinous garrisons in Chepstow, Tenby and Pembroke Castle as well as Royalist risings.

The Scots raised an army under the command of the Duke of Hamilton to send into England to fight on behalf of the King. With rebellion breaking out in England and Wales and the Scottish army marching for the border the future of Britain hung in the balance, in the view of the modern historian Ian Gentles. The summer of 1648 was extremely wet and stormy, causing both sides to be hampered by the weather. Major General John Lambert was in charge of Parliamentarian forces in the north of England. His men harassed the Royalist force around Carlisle, gathered information and besieged Pontefract Castle from early June. Marmaduke Langdale raised 4,000 English Royalists and covered the arrival of Hamilton's army.

When Lieutenant General Oliver Cromwell arrived in South Wales on 11 May with 5,000 men of the New Model Army he found the local Parliamentarian forces regaining control. A force of 8,000 ill-armed Royalists had been defeated by a much smaller force under Colonel Thomas Horton on 8 May at the battle of St Fagans. Tenby was besieged by Horton and capitulated on 31 May while Cromwell besieged Pembroke Castle in the far south west on 31 May, hampered by a lack of artillery. As the situation with regards to the siege and the restiveness of the local populace improved, Cromwell despatched cavalry regiments one at a time to march north and reinforce Lambert. Siege guns arrived on 1 July and the castle surrendered on the 11th. Cromwell mopped up and was marching east with more than 4,000 men within a week.

Prelude

James Hamilton, Marquess of Hamilton

Hamilton crossed the border into England on 8 July and joined with Langdale's force at Carlisle on the 9th. Attempted to crush Lambert at Appleby, unsuccessfully, and thereafter let him be. Allied force besieged Appleby Castle while waiting for Munro's force to arrive from Ireland. Lambert, acting on Cromwell's orders stood on the defensive until reinforced at Weatherby on 12 August when Cromwell took command of the combined force. More on Lambert, 9 July – 12 August.

On 13 August Cromwell directed his army westward, assuming or guessing that his opponent would continue south down the English west coast, rather than head directly for London via Upper Ribblesdale and Craven. It wasn't until the next day that a Royalist council of war agreed on the west coast route. Langdale informed Hamilton that the combined Parliamentarian force was bearing down on their east flank, but this warning was largely disregarded.

On the morning of 17 August the Parliamentarian army was largely concentrated in the area of the Hodder bridge over the River Ribble, 12 miles (19 km) east of the road being taken by the Royalists. The Royalists had failed to concentrate their forces. Monro, with his 2,800 experienced soldiers was at Kirkby Lonsdale, 30 miles (48 km) north of Preston, waiting for a promised ammunition train expected from Scotland, when he would follow on with the Scottish artillery. The bulk of the Scottish cavalry and their commander the Earl of Middleton were up to 16–20 miles (26–32 km) south of their infantry; the balance were closer to their main body. All had dispersed to forage. The separation and the scattering of the cavalry were both militarily unwise. The Scottish infantry, the largest single contingent of the Scottish force, was just to the north of Preston. Langdale's corps of 4,000 men was 8 miles (13 km) north east of Preston and falling back ahead of the Parliamentarian advance scouts.

Battle

A modern re-enactment of a musket volley of the period

Langdale's stand

On 17 August Hamilton intended to get the whole of his army across the Ribble Bridge, immediately south of Preston, and on the march to Wigan and then Manchester. Before the first unit had crossed, Langdale rode up to personally inform him that the whole of Cromwell's force was advancing from the north east and was already engaging his command. Hamilton dismissed this report as Langdale exaggerating another probe by Lambert; he ordered the infantry to commence crossing the bridge, but sent a small unit of Scottish cavalry to assist Langdale. These cavalry were equipped with lances not suited to the terrain in which they were deployed.

In fact, the Parliamentarian advance guard was pushing back Langdale's outlying troops in a confused running battle. Langdale had his main force take up defensive positions to the north west of Ribbleton Moor behind the deep cut of Eaves Brook, which runs east-west. As his outlying forces fell back they joined this line. This position halted the advance force of Parliamentarians a little before noon. The 8,000 or so Parliamentarians in the main body caught up and began deploying for battle, while skirmishing vigorously in heavy rain. Langdale's aim was to buy time – force the Parliamentarian army to spend several hours deploying into battle formation – to allow the Scots just to his rear to reinforce him. Langdale stretched his line as far as the available troops would permit to avoid being outflanked, about three-quarters of a mile (1 km). This meant that his defensive line was thin and had little depth. When it was realised that Langdale had been correct in stating that a full Parliamentarian army was advancing – some time after noon – most of the Scottish infantry had already crossed the Ribble Bridge and were marching south.

In mid-afternoon Cromwell opened the battle proper by charging the cavalry of the advance guard down the road, hoping to split Langdale's line. However, the road was blocked just behind the front line by a force of pikemen and the by-passed musketmen fired into the sides of the stalled cavalry formation. The Scottish lancers then attacked and threw the Parliamentarians back. Five Parliamentarian infantry regiments then took up the assault. Two fresh cavalry regiments attempted to position themselves for a fresh rush along the road, but found the going difficult as the road was jammed with wounded horses and were driven off by musket fire. For over an hour the battle stalled on the line of hedgerows occupied by Langdale's infantry amidst fierce fighting, with the Parliamentarians suffering heavy casualties.

Lambert ordered a fresh brigade forward on the Parliamentarian left wing and the Royalists broke and fled. The initial Parliamentarian break through coming on the Royalist's right cut most of them off from possible retreat to the Ribble Bridge. Many surrendered or were cut down. Others reached Preston, but the fight had gone out of them and the town was cleared by two regiments of Parliamentarian cavalry. There is no record of the cavalry element of Langdale's force taking part in the fighting and when their infantry were defeated they retreated north towards Kirksby Lonsdale. Those Scottish cavalry north of the bridge withdrew in the same direction. Two regiments of Parliamentarian cavalry pursued them.

Fight for the bridges

A 19th-century impression of the fight for Preston Bridge

Watery Lane

Hamilton became caught up in the rout of Langdale's troops and the Parliamentarian pursuit, took refuge in Preston and lost what control over the battle he had. It is probable – but not certain, the sources disagree – that two Scottish infantry brigades still to the north of the Ribble were ordered to move to the bridge and defend it, but were overrun in the confusion before they could get there. Parliamentarian musketmen took up positions on the escarpment north of the Ribble from which their fire could dominate the access to the bridge. Parliamentarian infantry then attempted to capture the bridge, but it took two hours of furious fighting before their pikemen were able to push their way across. They briefly pursued the Scots, then withdrew as it grew dark.

Darwen bridge.

Cromwell, fearful of a Scottish counter attack, had his men line the north bank of the Ribble overnight. The Scots in the area south of the Ribble consolidated at Walton Hill, 1 mile (1.6 km) south east of the bridge. There they were joined by Hamilton who had persuaded his horse to swim the river. A council of war decided that the survivors should make their way immediately south, to be well away from Cromwell's force by morning and to link up with their main force of cavalry at Wigan. To move as rapidly and stealthily as possible the Scots abandoned their baggage and ammunition trains, only taking with them what each man could carry. The baggage, equipment, artillery and ammunition left behind was supposed to be destroyed once the march was well under way, but it was not and was all captured before daylight.

Pursuit

With the baggage discovered it was clear that the Scots were making off, relying on the dark and the heavy rain to mask their march. Cromwell was alerted: he pulled together a force of cavalry and sent them across the bridge onto the road south. Within 3 miles (5 km) they had closed with the few cavalry the Scots were using as a rear guard. The whole of the mounted contingent of the New Model Army – less the two cavalry regiments following Langdale, but reinforced by some Lancashire troops – was now in pursuit, some 2,500 cavalry and dragoons. Their advance guard harried the Scottish cavalry, determined to break through them to force the Royalist infantry to stand and fight. The Scottish cavalry under Middleton, recalled from Wigan, took up a position to hold off the Parliamentarian pursuit. Throughout 18 August the Parliamentarians pressed, so aggressively that in one skirmish the commander of the advance guard was killed. All of the infantry of the New Model Army was now following their mounted comrades, a further 2,900 men. The Parliamentarians were still outnumbered by the surviving Scots, who numbered approximately 7,000. Local militia had been left in charge of Preston and the prisoners. By nightfall both sides were exhausted. The Scots entered Wigan, thoroughly plundered it and marched on through the night. Some men had not eaten nor slept for two nights, cavalrymen fell asleep in their saddles, the rain continued.

Battle of Winwick

Main article: Battle of Winwick

St Oswald's Church, Winwick

On 19 August, some 9 miles (14 km) south of Wigan, the Scots halted between the villages of Newton and Winwick. They had found a naturally strong defensive position where the road crossed Newton Brook and they could take defensive advantage of a large bank, the "Red Bank", and plentiful thick hedges. The ground around the ford was very muddy, which would hamper any attack. They prepared for battle, positioning stands of pikemen at access points, lining the hedges with musketmen and positioning the cavalry in reserve. The Scots numbered about 7,000 men, while the Parliamentarians were pursuing with nearly all of the New Model Army, supplemented by some local troops: approximately 2,500 cavalry and dragoons and 2,900 infantry for a total of some 5,400–5,500 men. The Parliamentarian horses were exhausted and unable to manage more than a walk.

The Parliamentarian pursuers rode up the road and in the words of one of their number, Captain John Hodgson, the Scots "snaffled our forlorn [advance guard], and put them to retreat". A lengthy pause followed as the weary Parliamentarian mounted troops waited for some of their infantry to catch up. Once they arrived they attempted to storm the Scottish positions, led by Pride's Regiment, but were held up. Fierce fighting continued for several hours, with repeated Parliamentarian charges and prolonged close quarter fighting between the opposing pike formations. Colonel Thomas Pride distinguished himself leading his regiment in this fighting, but the Parliamentarians were unable to dislodge the Scots. The Parliamentarian infantry fell back and their cavalry and some skirmishing dragoons held the Scots in place – if they had attempted to retreat the cavalry would have attacked them in their rear.

During this hiatus the infantry took a circuitous route behind woods and in dead ground to emerge on the flank and rear of the Scots. One source has local people telling the Parliamentarians the best route by which to outflank the Scots. When the Parliamentarians emerged the Scottish cavalry moved up from the rear to counter the threat. But the sight of the enemy emerging on the flank was too much for the exhausted Scots. By now the Scottish musketmen had run out of gunpowder, partly due to having abandoned their baggage train at Preston and partly because the persistent heavy rain dampened many powder flasks.

The Scottish infantry broke and fled. A large number routed towards Winwick and the Parliamentarian cavalry followed, cutting down many. The Scots discarded their weapons and crammed into the village church, where they were taken prisoner. Seeing that the battle was lost, the Scottish cavalry withdrew in the direction of Warrington, 3 miles (5 km) to the south. The majority of the Scottish infantry, about 2,700 men, followed them, hard pressed by the Parliamentarians. The fighting at Winwick cost the Scots 1,000 killed and 2,000 taken prisoner.

When the Scottish infantry reached Warrington late on 19 August they discovered that their cavalry and their commander had abandoned them. Hamilton left a message saying they would "preserve themselves for a better time" and ordering the infantry to surrender on the best terms they could get. The commander of the infantry, Lieutenant General William Baillie, was at such a loss that he turned to his staff and "beseeched any that would to shoot him through the head". Warrington bridge was barricaded and terms of surrender were sought. Cromwell took them prisoner sparing their lives and their immediate personal possessions.

Pursuit

Approximately 1,300 mounted Scots headed south. They dispersed a force of militia at Whitchurch and turned east for Stone, hoping to later turn north and make for Pontefract Castle, which was held by Royalists, from where they may have been able to return to Scotland. Disipline collapsed: troopers, even officers, deserted; one trooper shot his sergeant and was himself executed. Local militia repeatedly attacked, one group capturing the commander of the Scottish cavalry, the Earl of Middleton. The weather continued to be wet and stormy. At Uttoxeter on the morning of 24 August the Scots refused to march. A handful of the senior officers left, some eventually made their way to safety. Hamilton was too sick to move and surrendered on terms to the still pursuing Parliamentarians. The prisoners were promised their lives and their clothes, they were not to be beaten, the sick and wounded would be treated locally and Hamilton was allowed six servants.

Casualties

Those prisoners who had served voluntarily, as opposed to being conscripted, were sent as indentured labourers to the Americas or to Venice, to work either on the land or in the galleys respectively. Hamilton was beheaded for treason in March 1649.

The English Parliament announced that their losses during the whole campaign had been 100 or fewer killed. Cromwell declined to quantify the loss, but did speak of "many" wounded. A Parliamentary casualty figure of 100 is widely given by modern historians; Bull and Seed are sceptical and estimate that in excess of 500 were killed or wounded.

Aftermath

Further information: Execution of Charles I and Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)

Contemporary German print of the execution of Charles I

The battle of Winwick was the last battle of the Second English Civil War. Hearing of the outcome of Winwick, Colchester surrendered to Fairfax on 27 August 1648 on harsh terms. This effectively ended the war, although Pontefract held out until 22 March the following year.

The rout of the Engager army led to further political upheaval in Scotland and the faction opposed to the Engagement was able to gain control of the government, with the assistance of a group of English Parliamentarian cavalry led by Cromwell. Exasperated by the duplicity of Charles I and by the English Parliament's refusal to stop negotiating with him and accept the demands of the New Model Army, the Army purged Parliament and established the Rump Parliament, which appointed a High Court of Justice to try Charles I for treason against the English people. He was convicted and on 30 January 1649 beheaded. On 19 May, with the establishment of the Commonwealth of England, the country became a republic.

The Scottish Parliament, which had not been consulted before the King's execution, declared his son Charles II, King of Britain. Charles II set sail to Scotland, landing on 23 June 1650 and the Scottish Parliament set about rapidly recruiting an army to support the new king. The leaders of the English Commonwealth felt threatened by the Scots reassembling an army and the New Model Army, led by Cromwell, invaded Scotland on 22 July. After 14 months of hard fighting Scotland was largely subjugated and a Scottish counter-invasion was crushed at the Battle of Worcester.

The defeated Scottish government was dissolved and the English Parliament absorbed the kingdom of Scotland into the Commonwealth. Military rule was imposed, with 10,000 English troops garrisoned across the country to quell the threat of local uprisings. After in-fighting between factions in the English Parliament and the army, Cromwell ruled over the Commonwealth as Lord Protector from December 1653 until his death in September 1658. On 3 February the dominant army faction, under Lieutenant General George Monck, called new parliamentary elections. These resulted in the Convention Parliament which on 8 May 1660 declared that Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I. Charles II returned from exile and was crowned king of England on 23 April 1661, completing the Restoration.

Notes, citations and sources

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