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Purushanda

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Purushanda (also variously Puruskhanda, Purushhattum, Purushhatum or Burushattum) was an Anatolian kingdom of the early second millennium prior to the common era. It was conquered by the Hittites circa 1700 BC. The name disappears from history soon thereafter.

Etymology

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The name is written as māt Purušḫattim in the oldest Assyrian texts,[1] and it has been speculated that the root Puruš- is of Indo-European (i.e. Luwian language) heritage.[2] The suffix -ḫattim most certainly refers to the Hattians.[3] It was transliterated as Pu-ru-us-ha-an-da in the oldest Hittite texts (1650 -1500 BCE) and Pu-u-ru-us-ha-an-da (or -ta) in the newer ones (13th century BCE), resulting in the modern spelling Purušhanda.[4] The allophone variation of P/B is from the Akkadian language, which variously transliterated the name as Puruš-haddum, Puruš-ḫattim, Buruš-haddum, Puruš-hadim and Puruš-handar.[5]

Geography

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Middle Bronze Age Anatolia

Purushanda has yet to be archaeologically located. It can be discerned as a polity in the general central Anatolian region from Old Assyrian texts,[6] appeared to have access to the silver mines of the Taurus Mountains[7][8][2] and control of the Cilician Gates.[9][10] It has been posited as lying astride an inland passage of Anatolia known as “the Great Caravan Route” during the Early Bronze Age,[2] connecting Cilicia with the Troad.[11] Scholarship has reduced its location to three likely sites.[12] Majority opinion locates it at the mound of Acemhöyük.[13][14] The site consists of a 700 by 600 meter mound, shows occupation back to the third millennium BCE with central Anatolian, Mesopotamian and North Syrian pottery of the same era, a lower city that existed only during the Old Assyrian period, a burnt level at the end of that period and contemporaneous abandonment.[15][16] Minority views hold it to be at either the mound of Karahöyük[17] or somewhere west of Konya in the land of Pedassa.[18]

History

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Hattic period

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Archaeology at Acemhöyük has confirmed the remains of central Anatolian, Mesopotamian and north Syrian pottery - as well as traces of monumental structures - dated 2659 to 2157 BC.[19] The etymology suggests a city in the land of Hatti[1] south of the Kızılırmak River.

A text known as the "King of Battle" dating to the 14th century BC recounts the fictional expedition of Akkadian king Sargon against Purushanda and its ruler, Nur-Dagan (or Nur-Daggal).[20] An even older legend - the "Cuthean Legend of Naram-Sin" - implies that Purushanda belonged to Sargon's grandson.[21] Both works are anachronistic and ahistorical but may hint at a relationship between the Akkadians and Proto-Luwians in the twenty-fourth and twenty-third centuries BC before the latter's immigration to Anatolia.

Luwian period

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Linguistic models suggest the existence of a common Luwian-speaking state circa 2000 BC, stretching from the central Anatolian plateau (modern Konya province) northward to the western bend of the Maraššantiya (where modern Ankara, Kırıkkale and Kırşehir provinces meet).[22][23] This region was dominated by the kingdom of Purushanda,[24][22] the etymology of which suggests a takeover of Hattic lands by Luwian elites.[25] It is believed Purushanda would have functioned as "copper clearinghouse" between central and western Anatolia between 1974–1836 BC,[6] with evidence of monumental structures dating to the 1900s BC at the end of the early Bronze Age.[26]

Four ivory sphinxes from Acemhöyük, Turkey. Pratt ivories, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Purushanda is first mentioned toward the end of the 19th century BCE in the records of Mari. Subsequent seals found at Acemhöyük suggest substantial trade between the two kingdoms as well as the possibility of dynastic intermarriage between the two royal houses. Syrian cylinder seals appear to be the dominant style during this period and resemble the seal of Matruna, the daughter of the king Aplahanda of Carchemish who reigned 1786-1766 BC.[18] Scholarship has concluded that "that city was associated with an Anatolian or North Syrian network in which the Assyrians did not participate." [27][28]

Hittite period

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The city is prominently mentioned in the Anitta Texts,[29] a collection of Hittite writings unearthed at Kanesh. They depict it as a major seat of power in the region, describing its ruler as "Great King" (rubā'um rabi'um) whereas other rulers are merely "kings".

Purushanda features again in the stories of the campaigns of the 17th century BC Hittite ruler Anitta.[30] The Purushandan kingdom appears to have been a significant rival of Kanesh, the kingdom ruled by Anitta. The Hittite king launched a war against Purushanda but according to the Anitta Text, a Hittite account of later date, the Purushandan king surrendered to the Hittite army:[30]

When I went into battle, the Man of Purushanda brought gifts to me; he brought to me a throne of iron and a sceptre of iron as a gift. But when I returned to Nesa [Kanesh] I took the Man of Purushanda with me. As soon as he enters the chamber, that man will sit before me on the right.[31]

The text indicates that the right to rule over Purushanda's territory – symbolised by the regalia of office, the throne and sceptre – was surrendered to Anitta. Its king was reduced to the status of a privileged vassal, entitled to join Anitta at the court in Kanesh in recognition of his voluntary surrender and his high-born status. The kingdom itself probably ceased to exist at this point and was absorbed into Hittite-ruled territory.[30]

Kings

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Ruler Date Period Comment
Nur-Daggal c. 2330-2200 BC Early Bronze IVA (Akkadian Period) legendary great king contemporary with Sargon of Akkad.
Anitta* c. 1650 BC Middle Bronze II *Conquered the kingdom with the Rise of the Hittite Old Kingdom.

See Also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Karl Hecker, Zur Beurkundung V011 Kauf und Verkauf im Altassyrischen, Die Welt des Orients 11 (1980); RIA band 11, Purušhatum, 119.
  2. ^ a b c Blasweiler, Joost. "The kingdom of Purušhanda in the land Luwiya.” Arnhem, Arnhem (NL) Bronze Age, 2016. ISBN 978-90-820497-2-5.
  3. ^ Lewy, J. ”Hatta, Hattu, Hatti, Hattua, and ‘Old Assyrian’ Hattum." Archív Orientální; Praha Vol. 18, Iss. 3,  (Nov 1, 1950): 366-441.
  4. ^ Neu, Erich. Der Anitta-Text. Germany, O. Harrassowitz, 1974; Der Anitta-Text, 35-36.
  5. ^ Benjamin Studevent-Hickman and Christopher Morgan, "Old Akkadian Period Texts," in The Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation, ed. Mark W. Chavalas, Blackwell Sourcebooks in Ancient History I (Malden, MA; Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2006), 33.
  6. ^ a b Barjamovic, Gojko.(2011). A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period, p. 357-366, 373-374. United States, Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Near Eastern Studies, University of Copenhagen. Academic.edu
  7. ^ Dercksen, Jan Gerrit. The old Assyrian copper trade in Anatolia, p.125-128, 170-171. Jan Gerrit Dercksen. Istanbul, Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul, 1996.
  8. ^ Yener, K Aslihan. “The Anatolian Middle Bronze Age kingdoms and Alalakh: Mukish, Kanesh and trade.” Anatolian Studies 57 (2007): 151 - 160.
  9. ^ SMEA. Italy, Edizioni Quasar, 2007, p. 278.
  10. ^ Anatolia and the Jazira During the Old Assyrian Period, p. 67. Netherlands, Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2008.
  11. ^ Efe, Turan. The theories of the ‘Great Caravan Route’ between Cilicia and Troy: the Early Bronze Age III period in inland western Anatolia. Anatolian Studies 57 (2007): 47−64.
  12. ^ [1]Naohiko Kawakami, "The location of Purušḫanta", AL-RÃFIDÃN, Vol. XXVII, pp. 59-64, 2006
  13. ^ Bryce, Trevor (2005). The kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-19-927908-1. -- 'The kingdom of the Hittites' at academia.edu
  14. ^ Forlanini, Massimo. 1977. “L’Anatolia Nord-Occidentale Nell’impero Eteo.” Studi Micenei Ed Egeo-Anatolici 3-4: 291-300.
  15. ^ Oztan, Aliye; Ozguc, Nimet (2002). "the databases of the Archaeological Settlements of Turkey Project". Tayproject.org. Tay Project. Retrieved December 2, 2022.
  16. ^ Ozguc, Nimet (2022). "Acemhöyük (Ancient Anatolian City of Acemhoyuk-Aksaray)". transanatolie.com. Anadolu.
  17. ^ Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The ancient Near East, c. 3000-330 BC. Routledge. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-415-16763-5.
  18. ^ a b Blasweiler, Joost. "The kingdom of Purušhanda and its relations with the kings of Mari and Kanesh.” Arnhem, Arnhem (NL) Bronze Age, 2019. ISBN 978-90-820497-5-6.
  19. ^ Yakar, Jak. (2003). Towards an absolute chronology for middle and late bronze age Anatolia, Studies. Presented A.M. Mansel, 562. Academia.edu
  20. ^ Studevent-Hickman, Benjamin; Morgan, Christopher (2006). "Old Akkadian Period Texts". In Chavalas, Mark William (ed.). The ancient Near East: historical sources in translation. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 24–27. ISBN 978-0-631-23580-4.
  21. ^ 1. Lewy H. Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Period. In: Edwards IES, Gadd CJ, Hammond NGL, eds. The Cambridge Ancient History. The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press; 1971:707-728.
  22. ^ a b Yakubovich, Ilya. (2011). Luwian and the Luwians. The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE), p. 535. Spain: OUP USA. Google Books.
  23. ^ Yakubovich, Ilya. (2011). In Search of Luwiya, the Original Luwian-speaking Area. Journal of Ancient History, Vol. 4, p. 295. http://vdi.igh.ru
  24. ^ Blasweiler, Joost. (2016). The kingdom of Purušhanda in the land Luwiya, pp. 31-38. Arnhem, Arnhem (NL) Bronze Age. Academia.edu
  25. ^ History of Humanity: From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C., p. 549. United Kingdom: Routledge, 1994.
  26. ^ Efe, Turan. (2021) The Early Bronze Age in Western Anatolia. Eds. Laura Harrison, Nejat Bilgen and Asuman Kapuci. United Kingdom: State University of New York Press.
  27. ^ Stephen Paul Lumsden. (1990). Symbols of Power: Hittite Royal Iconography in Seal, 87. Also Briggs Buchanan 1969, The end of the Assyrian Colonies: The evidence of the seal, JAOS 89.4, 762.
  28. ^ Özgüç, Nimet: "Excavations at Acemhöyük“, Anadolu (Anatolia) 10 (1966)
  29. ^ Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The Ancient Near East, Volume I. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 226–27. ISBN 0-415-16763-9.
  30. ^ a b c Bryce, p. 39
  31. ^ Anitta Text, 73-9. Quoted in Bryce, p. 39
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