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Hurra-yi Khuttali

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Hurra-yi Khuttali
Spouse
  • Abu Ali Hasan
​
​
(m. 1015; died 1017)​
DynastyGhaznavids
FatherSabuktigin

Hurra-yi Khuttali[a] (Persian: حره ختلی; fl. 1006 c. 1006 – c. 1040) was a Ghaznavid princess, considered the most prominent woman in Ghaznavid politics. She was the daughter of Sabuktigin, founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty and ruler of Ghazna, in modern Afghanistan. She was married to two Ma'munid rulers of the Khwarazm region, the brothers Abu Ali Hasan and Ma'mun II. It is not known if she had any children with any of her husbands. Her marriages were a direct cause for the annexation of Khwarazm by her brother, Mahmud of Ghazni. In 1030, upon Mahmud's death, she wrote a letter to her favourite nephew, Mas'ud, urging him to claim the throne from his brother, Muhammad, who was deemed unfit to rule the empire. Her letter was one of the main reasons for Mas'ud's usurpation of the throne. She is last mentioned in 1040, leaving Ghazna for India; her ultimate fate is unknown.

Name and sources

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Hurra is an Arabic word meaning "free woman".[3] It was most likely an honorific laqab (agnomen) conferred to Ghaznavid princesses and not her actual name.[2] She used two nisbas, Khuttali and Kaliji.[1][b][c] According to British orientalist Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Khuttali may have referred to an earlier Ghaznavid marital alliance with the Principality of Khuttal, located in central Asia.[6] Another variation of her name is Khuttali Khatun, recorded by Shabankara'i (c. 1298 – c. 1358).[2]

The only primary source that sparsely records Hurra's life is Tarikh-i Bayhaqi by Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi (d. 1077) a secretary in the court of Amir Mas'ud of Ghazna and a contemporary of Hurra.[7]

Biography

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Early life and marriages

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A map of the Khwarazm region, with the Aral Sea in the north of it
Map of Khwarazm, before 1219

Hurra-yi Khuttali was a daughter of Sabuktigin, Amir of Ghazna (r. 977–997) and the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty,[2] who were a dynasty of Turkic origin whose realm included modern day Afghanistan, eastern Iran and northwestern India.[8] Hurra's date and place of birth is unknown, though the region of Khuttalan (now in Tajikistan) is a probable candidate.[2] According to Bosworth, she was distinguished from her sisters because of her intelligence and tactfulness, which gave her an influential role in governmental matters. In an era when education for women was restricted to only theology, she sought to learn sciences.[2] She had a good relationship with her brother, Mahmud (r. 998–1030), and repeatedly sent him luxurious gifts.[2] Between 1005 and 1009, Hurra married Abu al-Hasan Ali, ruler of Khwarazm (today in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan) from the Ma'munid dynasty.[9] This marriage would have secured an alliance between the two realms, since the Ma'amunids feared Mahmud's intentions to annex Khwarazm.[9]

Abu al-Hasan died at an uncertain date between 1006 to 1010 and was succeeded by his brother, Ma'mun II.[10] The latter, with the same intent as his brother, married Hurra in 1015.[10] Mahmud demanded his new brother-in-law recognized him as his sovereign, which Ma'mun conceded to. However, a patriotist rebellion broke out in Khwarazm on March 1017 and the rebels killed Ma'mun because of his submission.[10] Hurra may have been taken hostage by them.[11] Mahmud threatened the rebels with invasion unless they released Hurra. When she was safely returned, he invaded Khwarazm in revenge and sacked its capital, Gurganj.[11] It is not known if Hurra had any children with her two husbands.[2]

Mas'ud's ascension and later life

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Two gold coins
Coins of Mas'ud I, Hurra's nephew

After her return to Ghazna, Hurra took on a more active role in the court.[12] She acted as a spy for her favourite nephew, Mas'ud, Mahmud's son, who was the governor of Herat.[13] In 1030, after Mahmud's death, she was entrusted with the care of his wives and concubines from his harem.[14] In his will, Mahmud named his son Muhammad as his successor, who was crowned in Ghazna.[15] Hurra, along with her younger brother, Yusuf ibn Sabuktigin and the Turkic military commanders considered Muhammad weak and unable to rule the Ghaznavid empire, which was dependent on the powerful leadership of the Sultan.[16] Therefore, Hurra wrote a letter to Mas'ud (who was preoccupied in the west), informing him of his father's death and inviting him to take the throne while she and the other women of the court were confided in the Citadel of Ghazni.[17][d] Mas'ud marched east to claim the throne, and continued to receive letters from Hurra and his mother regarding the situation in Ghazna.[17] On his arrival in 1030 in Ghazna, Mas'ud captured Muhammad and took the throne. He put Muhammad in prison and may have had him blinded.[19][e] He also imprisoned Ali b. Il-Arsalan Qarib, the al-hajib al-kabir (commander-in-chief) of the army, who had assumed total power in Ghazna after Muhammad's ascension to become the real power behind Muhammad's government.[23]

Hurra must have maintained her influence on Mas'ud after his ascension.[19] She constantly warned Mas'ud of the importance of Ghazna as the principal territory of the empire, with Khorasan in second place.[24] The region of Khorasan housed rich oases, centres of industry and crafts and important trade routes. Therefore it was an integral part of the empire.[25] However, Mas'ud was more interested in India, and neglected Khorasan.[24] As a result, Oghuz Turkoman tribes infiltrated into the region under the leadership of the Seljuqs, and began raiding the towns despite unsuccessful attempts by the Ghaznavid armies to defeat them.[8] Eventually major cities of Khorasan welcomed the tribes as their overlords because the landowners of the province were unsatisfied with Mas'ud's failure to provide protection in the region and their loyalty had faltered.[8][26] Mas'ud's attempt at suppressing the Seljuqs resulted in a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Dandanaqan (1040).[27] Afterwards, he retreated towards Ghazna, urging Hurra, his other aunts and his mother to leave Ghazna with him for India.[28] Hurra is reported to have said: "Let anyone who wishes to fall into the enemies' hands remain in Ghazna."[19] This is the last recorded mention of Hurra-yi Khuttali by Beyhaqi.[2] Mas'ud's entourage was raided en route by rebels, Mas'ud was killed and his throne was usurped by Muhammad, whose second sultanate ended in 1041, after he was dethroned and executed by Mas'ud's son, Mawdud.[29][30] Hurra's ultimate fate, however, is unknown.[2]

Assessments

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Hurra's interference in Mahmud's succession was the most prominent instance of a woman openly partaking in the politics during the Ghaznavid period.[31] Without the zeal of Hurra and the royal Ghaznavid women in recalling Mas'ud, he possibly would not have returned to claim the throne from his brother.[32] Her literary competence is shown in her letter to Mas'ud, in which, she provokes her nephew's emotions and urges him to return with speed.[33] According to Iranian historian Elham Mourad-Pour, from a feminist outlook, throughout her life, Hurra displayed her authority as a woman without consideration of the intolerant society of her era.[33]

References

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Notes

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  1. ^ Also known as: Hurra-yi Kaliji[1] (Persian: حره کلیجی) and Khuttali Khatun (Persian: ختلی خاتون).[2]
  2. ^ Iranian historian, Shirin Bayani considers the two nisbas to refer to different persons.[4] However, Meisami and Bosworth both confirm that Hurra-yi Khuttali and Hurra-yi Kaliji were one person.[4][2]
  3. ^ Nisba is a part of an Arabic name that acts as an adjective, often referring to the individual's place of origin. It is possible to have several nisbas.[5]
  4. ^ The text of the letter: "Our ruler Sultan Mahmud died in the afternoon of Thursday 23 Rabi' al-Awwal—may God have mercy on him—and the fortune of servants has come to an end. I and the women of the harem are all in the citadel of Ghazna. The day after tomorrow we will make known his death. At night the king was buried in the Pirouzi garden, while we still longed to see him, for we had not seen him for a week. Affairs are in the hands of Hajib Ali [Ali b. Il-Arsalan Qarib]. After the burial, swift horsemen went that night to Guzganan so that your brother Muhammad might come here quickly and ascend the throne. The amir [Mas'ud] knows that his brother is not equal to this great task; this house has many enemies, and we women and the treasuries are in great peril. He [Mas'ud] must take charge of the affairs quickly, for he is his father's vali ahd (crown prince). He must not occupy himself with the region he has conquered or take any other. [...] [M]ake ready to come with all speed, so that neither the throne nor ourselves will be lost, send the messengers back quickly as your aunt is awaiting them anxiously. We will write to him of all that happens here."[17] (The interchangeable use of passive voice was to ensure the safety of the author and the receiver, because the fate of the letters were often uncertain.[18])
  5. ^ According to Bosworth, no primary sources (such as Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi and Gardizi) affirm that Muhammad was blinded by Mas'ud.[20] The claim only appears with later sources such as in the works of Firishta, Juzjani and Ibn al-Athir.[20] However, many Iranian exegetes of Bayhaqi's book, Tarikh-i Bayhaqi (e.g. Khalil Khatib Rahbar and Mohammad Dabirsiaghi) include Muhammad's blindness in Bayhaqi's account.[21] German historian Bertold Spuler states that Mas'ud blinded Muhammad to disqualify him from rights to succession.[22]

Citations

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  1. ^ a b Bosworth 1998, p. 101.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Forouzani 2014.
  3. ^ Boloix-Gallardo 2014, p. 388.
  4. ^ a b Meisami 2003, p. 100.
  5. ^ Bearman et al. 2012.
  6. ^ Bosworth 1981, p. 13.
  7. ^ Pirouti 2010, p. 142.
  8. ^ a b c Bosworth 2001.
  9. ^ a b Meisami 2003, p. 87.
  10. ^ a b c Bosworth 2017.
  11. ^ a b Meisami 2003, p. 88.
  12. ^ Pirouti 2010, p. 145.
  13. ^ Bosworth 1963, p. 96-97.
  14. ^ Bosworth 1963, p. 138.
  15. ^ Bosworth 1963, p. 228.
  16. ^ Bosworth 1963, p. 229.
  17. ^ a b c Meisami 2003, p. 85.
  18. ^ Mourad-Pour 2019, p. 91.
  19. ^ a b c Pirouti 2010, p. 146.
  20. ^ a b Bosworth 1977, p. 18.
  21. ^ Sahrai & Hasani Jalilian 2010, p. 78.
  22. ^ Spuler 2015, p. 115.
  23. ^ Bosworth 2020.
  24. ^ a b Bosworth 1963, p. 235.
  25. ^ Bosworth 2008b, p. 168, 170.
  26. ^ Bosworth 2008a, p. 14.
  27. ^ Meisami 2003, p. 96.
  28. ^ Meisami 2003, p. 97.
  29. ^ Bosworth 2008b, p. 195.
  30. ^ Bosworth 1977, p. 24.
  31. ^ Pirouti 2010, p. 151.
  32. ^ Meisami 2003, p. 86.
  33. ^ a b Mourad-Pour 2019, p. 97.

Bibliography

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  • Boloix-Gallardo, Bárbara (2014). "Beyond the Ḥaram: Ibn al-Khaṭīb and His Privileged Knowledge of Royal Nasrid Women". Medieval Encounters. 20 (4–5): 383–402. doi:10.1163/15700674-12342180. ISSN 1380-7854.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (1998). "The Ghaznavids". In Bosworth, C. Edmund; Asimi, Muhammad (eds.). The Age of achievement, A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century; Pt. I: the historical, social and economic setting. History of civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. 4. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. pp. 102–122. ISBN 92-3-103467-7.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (1981). "The Rulers of Chaghāniyān in Early Islamic Times". Iran. 19: 1–20. doi:10.2307/4299704.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (2017). "Āl-e Maʾmūn". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  • Bosworth, C. Edmund (2020). "ʿAlī b. Il-Arsalan Qarīb". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Retrieved 16 March 2024.

Bosworth, C. Edmund (2001). "Ghaznavid". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume X/6: Germany VI–Gindaros. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 578–583. ISBN 978-0-933273-55-9.

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