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Sankoré Madrasah

Coordinates: 16°46′33″N 3°00′20″W / 16.7758876°N 3.0056351°W / 16.7758876; -3.0056351
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Sankore Madrasa
Médersa de Sankoré
A photograph taken in Timbuktu possibly depicting Sankore Mosque
Religion
AffiliationIslam
Location
LocationTimbuktu, Mali
Sankoré Madrasah is located in Mali
Sankoré Madrasah
Shown within Mali
Geographic coordinates16°46′33″N 3°00′20″W / 16.7758876°N 3.0056351°W / 16.7758876; -3.0056351
Architecture
TypeMosque / Madrasa
StyleSudano-Sahelian architecture

Sankoré Madrasa (also called the Sankoré Mosque, Sankoré Masjid or University of Sankoré) is one of three medieval mosques and centres of learning located in Timbuktu, Mali, the others being the Djinguereber and Sidi Yahya mosques. Founded in the 14th century,[1] the Sankoré mosque went through multiple periods of patronage and renovation under both the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire until its decline following the Battle of Tondibi in 1591. The mosque developed into a madrasa (meaning a school or college in Arabic), reaching its peak in the 16th century.[2]

The term "University of Sankoré" has sometimes been applied to the Sankoré madrasa, though there is no evidence of a centralized teaching institution such as the term university implies.[3] Instead the mosque served as the focal point for individual scholars with their own private students, and as a location in which some lectures and classes were held.[4][5]

History

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Postcard published by Edmond Fortier with the mosque in 1905–06

The Sankoré mosque was originally built in the 14th-15th centuries with the financial backing of a Tuareg woman of the Aghlal tribe.[6][7] Modern analyzes have rejected the understanding that there was an al-Sahili influence on West African architecture - now treated as a myth - demonstrating that the architectural style of West African mosques derives mainly from mosques in the Sahara and traditional African architecture and religions.[8]

The Sankore Mosque was later restored between 1578 and 1582 AD by Imam Al-Aqib ibn Mahmud ibn Umar, the Chief Qadi (judge) of Timbuktu. Imam al-Aqib demolished the sanctuary and had it rebuilt with the dimensions of the Kaaba in Mecca.[1] The Sankoré madrasa prospered and became a significant place of learning within the Sudanic Muslim world, especially during the 15th and 16th centuries under Askia dynasty of the Songhai Empire (1493–1591).[9] Sankoré was the mosque that was chiefly associated with teaching in Timbuktu in this period.[10]

Growth as a center of learning

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The Songhai Empire at its greatest extent, c. AD 1500.

Timbuktu developed as a commercial centre in the 14th century, as Walata, the previous hub of trans-Saharan trade in the region, began to decline in importance.[11][12] It was not long before ideas as well as merchandise began passing through the city. Muslim scholars associated with the Sankoré mosque accumulated a wealth of books from throughout the Muslim world, leading to Sankoré becoming a centre of learning as well as a centre of worship.[13] At its peak the mosque was the focal point for a class of Islamic scholars that were held in high regard both locally and abroad. Songhai kings would even bestow numerous gifts upon them during Ramadan.[14]

Apex and fall

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The golden age of the Sankoré madrasa occurred in the 16th century during the Songhai Empire under Askia Muhammad, drawing in scholars from as far as Egypt and Syria. Scholars from Sankoré would also engage in learning or teaching while completing the Hajj to Mecca.[15] The trade in books within the Islamic world was one of the most important aspects of intellectual life in Timbuktu.[16] In 1526 AD the author Leo Africanus noted this trade when he visited Timbuktu, writing: "Here are great store of doctors, judges, priests, and other learned men, that are bountifully maintained at the kings cost and charges. And hither are brought divers manuscripts or written books out of Barbarie, which are sold for more money than any other merchandize."[17] Some Sankoré scholars accumulated large private libraries, with over 1600 manuscripts,[18] though there was no public library or university library in Timbuktu.[13] Manuscripts were copied by local students, giving them a means to earn a living during their studies.[19] Works written in Timbuktu were also exported to North Africa, such as the Nayl al-ibtihaj by Ahmad Baba, a biographical dictionary of Maliki scholars which gained popularity throughout the Maghreb.[20]

In 1591 AD, an invasion by Ahmad al-Mansur of Morocco led to the fall of the Songhai empire following the Battle of Tondibi, starting a long decline of the West African states.[21][22] In 1594 many Sankoré scholars, including Ahmed Baba, were arrested by Moroccan troops on grounds of sedition and deported to Morocco along with their manuscript collections.[23][24]

Modern day

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Sankoré Masjid, 2007

The integrity of the Sankoré madrasa has been at risk with increased urbanization and contemporary construction in Timbuktu. Significant damage has been done to the mosque due to flooding and a lack of restoration work. As a result, the integrity of the traditional building is at risk. However, there are currently several restoration and protective committees being funded by the government to prevent further damage. The Management and Conservation Committee of the Old Town, in coordination with the World Heritage Center, held long term plans to create a 500 foot buffer zone to protect the madrasa and create a sustainable urban development framework.

Organization

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Academic administration

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A wooden entrance door into the Sankoré Madrasa, 1993.

As the center of an Islamic scholarly community, the madrasa was very different in organization from European medieval universities, where students studied in one institution and were awarded degrees by the college. In contrast, the Sankoré madrasa had no central administration, student registers, or prescribed course of study. The school instead consisted of individual scholars (known as sheiks or ulama), each with their own private students. Most students learned from a single teacher throughout their entire education, which could last up to 10 years, having a relationship akin to that of an apprenticeship, though some studied at multiple madrasas under a series of teachers. Classes were held either at the mosque or at the teacher's home. While madrasas in other parts of the Islamic world were often funded through endowments known as waqf (charitable giving), students at the Sankoré madrasa had to finance their own tuition with money or bartered goods.[25]

Architecture

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The late 16th-century courtyard was reconstructed to exactly match the dimensions of the Kaaba in Mecca, one of Islam's most holy sites.[25] Classes took place in the open courtyard of the mosque, which was made entirely of clay and wood beams. The building still stands today, likely due to Al-Sahili's directive to incorporate a wooden framework into the mud walls in order to facilitate repairs after the rainy season.[26] Despite its historical significance the Sankoré mosque was smaller and less intricate than earlier Malian mosques such as the Great Mosque of Djenné.[27]

Curriculum

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Depicts scholars in the Islamic Golden Age at an Abbasid library in Baghdad, illustration by Yahyá al-Wasiti, 1237

Islamic schooling had existed in West Africa since the 11th century, and although it was usually intended for elites, the Qur’anic emphasis on equality in education allowed for the spread of the institution and increased literacy rates.[28] The Qur'an itself and the hadiths stress the search for knowledge,[28] and Islamic scholarship, especially in the Golden Age of Islam, focused heavily on education.[29] In the 15th century the scholar Al-Kābarī contributed to the development of education in Timbuktu, with a focus on religious teachings.[30] By the 16th century Timbuktu housed as many as 150-180 Qur'anic schools, which taught basic literacy and recitation of the Qur'an, with an estimated 4,000-9,000 students.[31][32] Around 200-300 individuals drawn from wealthy families were able to pursue higher levels of study at the madrasas and attain the status of ulama (scholars).[33] Many of these became influential jurists, historians and theologians in the wider muslim world.[34]

With the Qur'an being the foundation of all teachings, arguments that could not be backed by the Qur'an were inadmissible in discussions and debates at the Sankoré madrasa. Madrasas differed from traditional Qur’anic schools in that they focused on Arabic grammar to properly understand holy texts and Islamic scholarship.[35] However, subjects studied at Sankoré also included mathematics, astronomy and history, drawing from the diverse collections of manuscripts held by scholars. Education at Sankoré and other madrasas in the area had four levels of schooling or "degrees". When graduating from each level, students would receive a turban symbolizing their level.

Degrees of study

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The first or primary degree (Qur'anic school) required a mastery of Arabic and writing along with complete memorization of the Qur'an.

The secondary degree focused on full immersion in the basic sciences. Students learned grammar, mathematics, geography, history, physics, astronomy, chemistry alongside more advanced learning of the Qur'an. At this level, they learned the hadiths, jurisprudence, and the sciences of spiritual purification according to Islam. Finally, they began an introduction to trade and business ethics. On graduation day, students were given turbans symbolizing divine light, wisdom, knowledge and excellent moral conduct.

The superior degree required students to study under specialized professors and to complete research work. Much of the learning centered on debates regarding philosophic or religious questions. Before graduating from this level, students attached themselves to a Sheik (Islamic teacher) and had to demonstrate a strong character.

Senior roles

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The last level of learning at Sankoré or any masjid was the level of judge or professor. These men worked mainly as judges for the city and throughout the region, dispersing learned men to all the principal cities in Mali. A third level student who had impressed his Sheik enough was admitted into a "circle of knowledge" and valued as a truly learned individual and expert in his field. The members of this scholar's club similar to the modern concept of tenured professors. Those who did not leave Timbuktu remained to teach or counsel the leading people of the region on important legal and religious matters. The scholars would receive questions from the region's kings or governors, and distribute them to the third level students as research assignments. After discussing the findings among themselves, the scholars would issue a fatwa on the best way to deal with the problem at hand.

Scholars

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The African civilizations had a rich history in literature and the arts, long before their contact with the Arabian and Western worlds. The scholars employed at the Sankoré university were of the highest quality, "astounding even the most learned men of Islam".[36] As such, many scholars were later inducted as professors at universities in Morocco and Egypt.[37] Scholars were accomplished in multiple disciplines and employed to not only teach the students at the university, but to spread the madrasa's influence to other parts of the Islamic world.[38][27] Under the direction of Askia Daoud, ruler of the Songhai empire from 1549 to 1583, the university grew to encompass 180 facilities and house 25,000 students. Each facility was led by one Ulema, for a total of 180 scholars.

Notable scholars

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Some significant scholars include Abu Abdallah, Ag Mohammed ibn Utman, Ag Mohammed Ibn Al-Mukhtar An-Nawahi.[39] Most came from wealthy and religious families that were members of the Sufi Qadiriyya. The most influential scholar was Ahmad Baba who served as the final chancellor of Sankoré Madrasa. His life is a brilliant example of the range and depth of West African intellectual activity before colonialism. He was the author of over forty books, with nearly each one having a different theme. He was also one of the first citizens to protest the Moroccan conquest of Timbuktu in 1591. Eventually, he, along with his peer scholars, was imprisoned and exiled to Morocco. This led to the loss of his personal collection of 1600 books, which was one of the richest libraries of his day.[37]

Religious pilgrimage

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Apart from their time working in their theoretical studies and the preservation of knowledge, the scholars of Timbuktu were extremely pious. Many embarked on the Hajj, the religious pilgrimage to Mecca, and used this opportunity to hold discussions with scholars from other parts of the Muslim world. On the way home, the scholars showed their humble nature by both learning from other leading scholars in Cairo, and volunteering to teach pupils of other schools in Kano, Katsina, and Walata.[37] Mohammed Bagayogo received an honorary doctorate in Cairo on his holy pilgrimage to Mecca.[40]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b "Timbuktu". UNESCO World Heritage Convention.
  2. ^ "Wonders of the African World - Episodes - Road to Timbuktu - Wonders". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  3. ^ Hunwick, John (1999). Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire. Al-Sa'dī's Ta'rīkh al-sūdān down to 1613 and other Contemporary Documents. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. lviii–lxii. ISBN 90-04-12822-0. The term 'University of Sankore', or 'University of Timbuktu' has been applied to this teaching complex. … there is no evidence of any such institution, and the Islamic tradition of learning (especially in Africa) is individualized rather than institutionalized … what was taking place in Timbuktu should be viewed within the cultural context of Islamic civilisation, rather than being associated conceptually with a European-style institution. … much of the day-to-day teaching process took place in scholar's houses, probably in special rooms set apart, where the scholar had his own private library which he could consult when knotty points arose. There is no evidence of a centralized teaching institution such as the term university implies.
  4. ^ Singleton, Brent D. (2004). "African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu". Library Faculty Publications. 21. The fully-qualified ulama of Timbuktu were a tight-knit community never numbering more than 200-300 at any particular time; they were concentrated in discrete quarters and mosques of the city. With the exception of special lectures given in the main mosques, the vast majority of instruction occurred in one-on-one or small group settings at the residence of a scholar.
  5. ^ Hunwick, John, ed. (2003). Arabic Literature of Africa, Volume 4: The Writings of Western Sudanic Africa. Brill. p. 2. ISBN 90-04-12444-6. The city's educational reputation has led some people to speak of a Timbuktu university, beginning with Felix Dubois, who wrote of the "University of Sankore". While the Sankore quarter in the north-east of Timbuktu certainly was an area which attracted many scholars to live in it, nevertheless, there is no evidence of any institutionalized centre of learning. Teaching of some texts was undertaken in the Sankore mosque, and also in the Sidi Yahya mosque and the "Great Mosque" – Jingere Ber – but teaching authorisations (ijaza) always came directly from the shaykhs with whom the students studied. Much of the teaching was done in scholars homes, and individual scholars had their own personal research and teaching libraries.
  6. ^ Hunwick, John (2003). "Timbuktu: A Refuge of Scholarly and Righteous Folk". Sudanic Africa. 14: 15. JSTOR 25653392 – via JSTOR. In the year 1325, when Timbuktu was under the rule of Mali, the sultan of Mali, Mansa Musa, came there during his return from pilgrimage, and ordered the construction of a Great Mosque (until now still in existence in the south of the city) under the supervision of the Andalusian scholar Abu Ishaq al-Sahili, who had accompanied Mansa Musa on his return journey from Mecca. Then after some years a large mosque was built in the Sankore quarter in the north of the city, financed by a woman from the Aghlal, a religious Tuareg tribe (of ineslemen). The Sankore mosque became a place for teaching tafsir (Qur'anic exegesis) and other Islamic teachings. Sankore was a dwelling place many scholars, especially those belonging to the Masufa
  7. ^ "Sankore Mosque". Google Arts & Culture.
  8. ^ Aradeon, Susan B. (1989). "Al-Sahili: the historians' myth of architectural technology transfer from North Africa". Journal des africanistes. 59 (1–2): 99–131. doi:10.3406/jafr.1989.2279.
  9. ^ Woods, Michael (2009). Seven wonders of ancient Africa. Mary B. Woods. London: Lerner. ISBN 978-0-7613-4320-2. OCLC 645691064.
  10. ^ Hunwick, John (1999). Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire. Al-Sa'dī's Ta'rīkh al-sūdān down to 1613 and other Contemporary Documents. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. lviii. ISBN 90-04-12822-0. The mosque that was chiefly associated with teaching in this period was the Sankore Mosque.
  11. ^ Oliver, Roland, ed. (1977). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 392. ISBN 978-0-521-20981-6. In the fourteenth century, when it began to develop as a commercial centre, Timbuktu also became a cultural centre of Islam.
  12. ^ Hunwick, John (1999). Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire. Al-Sa'dī's Ta'rīkh al-sūdān down to 1613 and other Contemporary Documents. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. lvi–lvii. ISBN 90-04-12822-0. It would seem that Timbuktu was little more than a semi-permanent nomadic settlement in the twelfth century, and probably through the thirteenth […] the city effectively emerges into the light of history with the visit of the Malian ruler Mansa Musa on his way home from his pilgrimage of 1324. He is said to have brought back with him a number of Muslim scholars […] By 1375 Timbuktu, together with several Saharan locations, had found its place on a European map … this is a sure sign that Timbuktu was, by now, a commercial centre linked to North African cities.
  13. ^ a b Singleton, Brent D. (2004). "African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu". Library Faculty Publications. 21. there is no evidence of the existence of open access public libraries in medieval Timbuktu. On the contrary, the libraries of Timbuktu seem to have all been private collections of individual scholars or families.
  14. ^ Henrik Clarke, John. “The University of Sankore at Timbuctoo: A Neglected Achievement in Black Intellectual History.” The Western journal of black studies 1.2 (1977): 142–. Print.
  15. ^ Hunwick, John (2023). "The Timbuktu Manuscript Tradition". Tinabantu Journal of African National Affairs. 1 (2). doi:10.14426/tbu.v1i2.1643. Not only were manuscripts imported to Timbuktu, both from North Africa and Egypt, but scholars going on pilgrimage often studied in both Mecca and, on the way back, in Cairo, and copied texts to add to their own libraries.
  16. ^ Hunwick, John (1999). Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire. Al-Sa'dī's Ta'rīkh al-sūdān down to 1613 and other Contemporary Documents. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
  17. ^ "Leo Africanus (1526): A geographical historie of Africa, Book 7, Chapter: Of the kingdome of Tombuto". University of Michigan Library - Early English Books Online.
  18. ^ Singleton, Brent D. (2004). "African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu". Library Faculty Publications. 21. Reliable figures concerning the size and scope of libraries in Timbuktu are scarce, however, the historical chronicles of Timbuktu and other sources provide a glimpse of a handful of collections. Al--Hashtuki quotes Ahmad Baba's comment about his library seized by the Moroccans: "I had the smallest library of any of my kin, and they seized 1,600 volumes."
  19. ^ Singleton, Brent D. (2004). "African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu". Library Faculty Publications. 21. Manuscripts were plentiful in Timbuktu and the need for copying continual, affording students the opportunity to earn a living during their studies. [...] The cost of copying a set of books was enormous ... But no matter how costly local copying may have been, it was still far less expensive than purchasing most imported books.
  20. ^ Singleton, Brent D. (2004). "African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu". Library Faculty Publications. 21. The flow of books into Timbuktu naturally outpaced the number of books Timbuktu exported to the outside world, nonetheless, many notable works owned or penned by Sudanese scholars were traded north. Ahmad Baba, the preeminent scholar of Timbuktu, wrote more than 40 works including a biographical dictionary of Maliki fuqaha entitled Nayl al-ibtihaj bi-tatriz al-Dibaj, often referred to simply as the Nayl al-ibtihaj. This work gained popularity throughout the Maghrib (North Africa) and reached every part of the Maliki Muslim world.
  21. ^   Kobo, Ousman Murzik. “Paths to Progress: Madrasa Education and Sub-Saharan Muslims’ Pursuit of Socioeconomic Development.” In The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies, 159–177. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016.
  22. ^ Henrik Clarke, John. “The University of Sankore at Timbuctoo: A Neglected Achievement in Black Intellectual History.” The Western journal of black studies 1.2 (1977): 142–. Print.
  23. ^ Kaba, Lansiné (1981). "Archers, Musketeers, and Mosquitoes: The Moroccan Invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay Resistance (1591–1612)". The Journal of African History. 22 (4): 457–475. doi:10.1017/S0021853700019861. PMID 11632225. S2CID 41500711.
  24. ^ Singleton, Brent D. (2004). "African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu". Library Faculty Publications. 21. Reliable figures concerning the size and scope of libraries in Timbuktu are scarce, however, the historical chronicles of Timbuktu and other sources provide a glimpse of a handful of collections. Al--Hashtuki quotes Ahmad Baba's comment about his library seized by the Moroccans: "I had the smallest library of any of my kin, and they seized 1,600 volumes." ... Baba's personal collection was extensive and valuable, and was completely dispersed to Morocco.
  25. ^ a b "The University of Sankore Is Founded in Timbuktu." In Africa, edited by Jennifer Stock, 95-98. Vol. 1 of Global Events: Milestone Events Throughout History. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale, 2014.
  26. ^ Hunwick, John (2003). "Timbuktu: A Refuge of Scholarly and RIghteous Folk". Sudanic Africa. 14 – via JSTOR.
  27. ^ a b "Wonders of the African World - Episodes - Road to Timbuktu - Wonders". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  28. ^ a b Hima, Halimatou (2020). "'Francophone' Education Intersectionalities: Gender, Language, and Religion". The Palgrave Handbook of African Education and Indigenous Knowledge. pp. 463–525.
  29. ^ Thomas-Emeagwali, Gloria (January 1, 1988). "Reflections on the Development of Science in the Islamic World - and its diffusion into Nigeria Before 1903". Journal of the Pakistan Historical Societyb. 36: 41.
  30. ^ Wright, Zachary V. (2020), "The Islamic Intellectual Tradition of Sudanic Africa, with Analysis of a Fifteenth-Century Timbuktu Manuscript", The Palgrave Handbook of Islam in Africa, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 55–76, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-45759-4_4, ISBN 978-3-030-45758-7, S2CID 226523945, retrieved 2021-12-05
  31. ^ Singleton, Brent D. (2004). "African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu". Library Faculty Publications. 21. In the 16th century, Timbuktu housed as many as 150-180 maktabs (Qur'anic schools), where basic reading and recitation of the Qur'an were taught. The schools had an estimated peak enrollment of 4,000--5,000; this number includes the transitory population of students from neighboring cities and surrounding nomadic tribes. Basic literacy skills were abundant, but only a select few (200-300 individuals) drawn from a small number of wealthy families were able to attain the status of ulama (scholars).
  32. ^ Gomez, Michael A. (2018). African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa. Princeton University Press. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-691-17742-7. Tarīkh al-fattāsh makes this very clear, transitioning from the general to the particular in estimating between 150 and 180 Qur'ānic schools (maktabān) in the city ... By extension, this suggests a city with a sizable student population, entirely consistent with Africanus's general impression. Attempts at quantification are simply that, but a range of 7,500 to 9,000 students in such schools does not seem an unreasonable estimate.
  33. ^ Singleton, Brent D. (2004). "African Bibliophiles: Books and Libraries in Medieval Timbuktu". Library Faculty Publications. 21. in Timbuktu the body of ulama was drawn exclusively from the city's wealthiest families. With the exception of a handful of apprentices called alfas, there were no opportunities for the lower classes to join the scholarly elite. ... The fully-qualified ulama of Timbuktu were a tight-knit community never numbering more than 200-300 at any particular time; they were concentrated in discrete quarters and mosques of the city.
  34. ^ Olasupo Adeleye, Mikail (January 1, 1983). "Islam and Education". Islamic Quarterly. 27: 140.
  35. ^ Kobo, Ousman Murzik (2016), "Paths to Progress: Madrasa Education and Sub-Saharan Muslims' Pursuit of Socioeconomic Development", The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 159–177, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24774-8_7, ISBN 978-3-319-24772-4, retrieved 2021-12-05
  36. ^ Dubois, Félix (1896). Timbuctoo the mysterious. New York, Longmans, Green and Co.
  37. ^ a b c Henrik Clarke, John. “The University of Sankore at Timbuctoo: A Neglected Achievement in Black Intellectual History.” The Western journal of black studies 1.2 (1977): 142–. Print.
  38. ^ Lawton, Bishop (2020-06-27). "Sankore Mosque and University (c. 1100- ) •". Retrieved 2021-11-30.
  39. ^ "The University of Sankore, Timbuktu". Muslim Heritage. 2003-06-07. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  40. ^ Michael A. Gomez. African Dominion : A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018, pg. 357.

Further reading

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  • Saad, Elias N. (1983). Social History of Timbuktu: The Role of Muslim Scholars and Notables 1400–1900. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24603-2.
  • Gomez, Michael A. (2018). African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691177427
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