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Mealybug

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Pseudococcidae
Mealybugs on a flower stem in Yogyakarta
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Superfamily: Coccoidea
Family: Pseudococcidae
Heymons, 1915 [1]

Mealybugs are insects in the family Pseudococcidae, unarmored scale insects found in moist, warm habitats. Of the more than 2,000 described species, many are considered pests as they feed on plant juices of greenhouse plants, house plants and subtropical trees and also act as a vector for several plant diseases. Some ants live in symbiotic relationships with them, protecting them from predators and feeding off the honeydew which they excrete.

Description

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A video of a mealybug

Mealybugs are sexually dimorphic: females appear as nymphs, exhibiting reduced morphology, and lack wings, although unlike many female scale insects, they often retain legs and can move. Males are smaller, gnat-like and have wings. Since mealybugs, as well as all other Hemiptera, are hemimetabolous insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis in the true sense of the word. However, male mealybugs exhibit a radical change during their life cycle, changing from wingless, ovoid nymphs to wasp-like flying adults.[citation needed]

Mealybug females feed on plant sap, normally in roots or other crevices, and in a few cases the bottoms of stored fruit. They attach themselves to the plant and secrete a powdery wax layer (hence the name "mealy" bug) used for protection while they suck the plant juices. The males are short-lived, as they do not feed at all as adults and only live to fertilize the females. Male citrus mealy bugs fly to the females and resemble fluffy gnats.

Some species of mealybug lay their eggs in the same waxy layer used for protection in quantities of 50–100; other species are born directly from the female.

The most serious pests are mealybugs that feed on citrus. Other species damage sugarcane, grapes, pineapple (Jahn et al. 2003), coffee trees, cassava, ferns, cacti, gardenias, papaya, mulberry, sunflower and orchids. Mealybugs only tend to be serious pests in the presence of ants because the ants protect them from predators and parasites.[2] Mealybugs are also a vector of viruses in grapevines, spreading grapevine leafroll and grapevine red blotch viruses.[3]

Mealybugs also infest some species of carnivorous plant such as Sarracenia (pitcher plants). In such cases it is difficult to eradicate them without repeated applications of insecticide such as diazinon. Small infestations may not inflict significant damage. In larger amounts though, they can induce leaf drop. In recent years, some of the mealybug species have become invasive pests in localities posing a great problem to the new agro-ecosystems. In India, Withania somnifera plant have been reported as a new reservoir host for an invasive mealybug species Phenacoccus solenopsis.[4]

Some mealybugs of the Hypogeococcus are used as biological pest controls of invasive cacti in South Africa, including Harrisia balansae, H. martinii, and Opuntia cespitosa.[5]

Fossil specimens of genus Acropyga ants have been recovered from the Burdigalian stage Dominican amber deposits and several individuals are preserved carrying the extinct mealybug genus Electromyrmococcus.[6] These fossils represent the oldest record of the symbiosis between mealybugs and Acropyga species ants.[6]

Control methods

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Insecticides such as pyrethroids (e.g. permethrin, bifenthrin, cyfluthrin) have been used for control,[7] but this approach is often considered counter-productive due to mortality of mealybug natural enemies.

Some gardeners use species of predatory beetles (e.g. Cryptolaemus) and green lacewings (Chrysopidae) larvae to control mealybug infestations, as the larval lacewings are voracious predators of aphids and other small insects.[8]

Metabolism

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Mealybugs have a highly sophisticated metabolism that involves not one but two bacterial endosymbionts, one inside the other. The endosymbionts make essential amino acids that the mealybug is not able to acquire directly from its diet. Genetically, mealybugs rely on a "mosaic" of metabolic pathways in which proteins are transported across membranes between what were once independent organisms.[9]

Use in the textile industry

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In Oaxaca Mexico, where mealybugs are known as cochinilla algodonosa, the insects are intentionally cultivated and farmed. Dried mealybugs are ground into a dust, producing a red dye is used to colour fabrics, in artist's paints, and in cosmetics.


  • Prickly Pear Cactus with Mealybugs
    Prickly Pear Cactus with Mealybugs
  • Mealybugs on Prickly Pear Cactus Leaves
    Mealybugs on Prickly Pear Cactus Leaves
  • Mealybugs being ground into traditional red dye in Oaxaca, Mexico
    Mealybugs being ground into traditional red dye in Oaxaca, Mexico

Genera

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The following are included in BioLib.cz:[10]

  1. Acaciacoccus Williams & Matile-Ferrero, 1994
  2. Acinicoccus Williams, 1985
  3. Acrochordonus Cox, 1987
  4. Adelosoma Borchsenius, 1948
  5. Aemulantonina Williams, 2004
  6. Agastococcus Cox, 1987
  7. Albertinia (bug) de Lotto, 1971
  8. Allococcus Ezzat & McConnell, 1956
  9. Allomyrmococcus Takahashi, 1941
  10. Allotrionymus Takahashi, 1958
  11. Amonostherium Morrison & Morrison, 1922
  12. Anaparaputo Borchsenius, 1962
  13. Anisococcus Ferris, 1950
  14. Annulococcus James, 1936
  15. Anthelococcus McKenzie, 1964
  16. Antonina Signoret, 1875
  17. Antoninella Kiritchenko, 1938
  18. Antoninoides Ferris, 1953
  19. Apodastococcus Williams, 1985
  20. Archeomyrmococcus Williams, 2002
  21. Artemicoccus Balachowsky, 1953
  22. Asaphococcus Cox, 1987
  23. Asphodelococcus Morrison, 1945
  24. Asteliacoccus Williams, 1985
  25. Atriplicicoccus Williams & Granara de Willink, 1992
  26. Atrococcus Goux, 1941
  27. Australicoccus Williams, 1985
  28. Australiputo Williams, 1985
  29. Balachowskya Gomez-Menor, 1956
  30. Balanococcus Williams, 1962
  31. Benedictycoccina Kozár & Foldi, 2004
  32. Bessenayla Goux, 1988
  33. Birendracoccus Ali, 1975
  34. Bolbococcus Williams, 2002
  35. Boninococcus Kawai, 1973
  36. Boreococcus Danzig, 1960
  37. Borneococcus Williams, 2002
  38. Bouhelia Balachowsky, 1938
  39. Brevennia Goux, 1940
  40. Brevicoccus Hambleton, 1946
  41. Calicoccus Balachowsky, 1959
  42. Callitricoccus Williams, 1985
  43. Calyptococcus Borchsenius, 1948
  44. Cannococcus Borchsenius, 1960
  45. Casuarinaloma Froggatt, 1933
  46. Cataenococcus Ferris, 1955
  47. Caulococcus Borchsenius, 1960
  48. Chaetococcus Maskell, 1898
  49. Chaetotrionymus Williams, 1985
  50. Chloeoon Anderson, 1788
  51. Chlorizococcus McKenzie, 1960[11]
  52. Chlorococcus Beardsley, 1971
  53. Chryseococcus Cox, 1987
  54. Cintococcus Goux, 1940
  55. Circaputo McKenzie, 1962
  56. Clavicoccus Ferris, 1948
  57. Coccidella Hambleton, 1946
  58. Coccidohystrix Lindinger, 1943
  59. Coccura Šulc, 1908
  60. Coleococcus Borchsenius, 1962
  61. Conicoccus Goux, 1994
  62. Conicosoma de Lotto, 1971
  63. Conulicoccus Williams, 1985
  64. Coorongia Williams, 1985
  65. Cormiococcus Williams, 1989
  66. Crenicoccus Williams, 2004
  67. Criniticoccus Williams, 1960
  68. Crisicoccus Ferris, 1950
  69. Crocydococcus Cox, 1987
  70. Cryptoripersia Cockerell, 1899
  71. Cucullococcus Ferris, 1941
  72. Cyperia De Lotto, 1964
  73. Cypericoccus Williams, 1985
  74. Cyphonococcus Cox, 1987
  75. Dawa (bug) Williams, 1985
  76. Delococcus Ferris, 1955
  77. Delottococcus Cox & Ben-Dov, 1986
  78. Dicranococcus Williams, 2002
  79. Discococcus Ferris, 1953
  80. Distichlicoccus Ferris, 1950
  81. Diversicrus de Lotto, 1971
  82. Doryphorococcus Williams, 2002
  83. Drymococcus Borchsenius, 1962
  84. Dysmicoccus Ferris, 1950
  85. Eastia De Lotto, 1964
  86. Ehrhornia Ferris, 1918
  87. Epicoccus Cockerell, 1902
  88. Eriocorys de Lotto, 1967
  89. Erioides Green, 1922
  90. Erium Cockerell, 1897
  91. Eucalyptococcus Williams, 1985
  92. Eumirococcus Ter-Grigorian, 1964
  93. Eumyrmococcus Silvestri, 1926
  94. Eupeliococcus Sãvescu, 1985
  95. Euripersia Borchsenius, 1948
  96. Eurycoccus Ferris, 1950
  97. Exallomochlus Williams, 2004
  98. Exilipedronia Williams, 1960
  99. Extanticoccus Williams, 2004
  100. Farinococcus Morrison, 1922
  101. Ferrisia Fullaway, 1923
  102. Ferrisicoccus Ezzat & McConnell, 1956
  103. Fijicoccus Williams & Watson, 1988
  104. Fonscolombia Lichtenstein, 1877
  105. Formicococcus Takahashi, 1928
  106. Gallulacoccus Beardsley, 1971
  107. Geococcus (bug) Green, 1902
  108. Glycycnyza Danzig, 1974
  109. Gouxia Koçak & Kemal, 2009[a]
  110. Gomezmenoricoccus Kozar & Walter, 1985
  111. Greenoripersia Bodenheimer, 1929
  112. Grewiacoccus Brain, 1918
  113. Grewiacococcus Brain, 1918
  114. Hadrococcus Williams, 1985
  115. Hambletonrhizoecus Kozár & Konczné Benedicty, 2005
  116. Heliococcus Šulc, 1912
  117. Hemisphaerococcus Borchsenius, 1934
  118. Heterococcopsis Borchsenius, 1948
  119. Heterococcus (bug) Ferris, 1918
  120. Hippeococcus Reyne, 1954
  121. Hopefoldia Foldi, 1988
  122. Hordeolicoccus Williams, 2004
  123. Humoccoccus Ferris, 1953
  124. Humococcus Ferris, 1953
  125. Hypogeococcus Rau, 1938[5]
  126. Iberococcus Gomez-Menor Ortega, 1928
  127. Idiococcus Takahashi & Kanda, 1939
  128. Inopicoccus Danzig, 1971
  129. Ityococcus Williams, 1985
  130. Kaicoccus Takahashi, 1958
  131. Kenmorea Williams, 1985
  132. Kermicus Newstead, 1897
  133. Kiritshenkella Borchsenius, 1948
  134. Lachnodiella Hempel, 1910
  135. Lachnodiopsis Borchsenius, 1960
  136. Lacombia Goux, 1940
  137. Laingiococcus Morrison, 1945
  138. Laminicoccus Williams, 1960
  139. Lanceacoccus Williams, 2004
  140. Lantanacoccus Williams & Granara de Willink, 1992
  141. Lenania De Lotto, 1964
  142. Leococcus Kanda, 1959
  143. Leptococcus Reyne, 1961
  144. Leptorhizoecus Williams, 1998
  145. Liucoccus Borchsenius, 1960
  146. Lomatococcus Borchsenius, 1960
  147. Londiania De Lotto, 1964
  148. Longicoccus Danzig, 1975
  149. Maconellicoccus Ezzat, 1958
  150. Macrocepicoccus Morrison, 1919
  151. Macrocerococcus Leonardi, 1907
  152. Maculicoccus Williams, 1960
  153. Madacanthococcus Mamet, 1959
  154. Madagasia Mamet, 1962
  155. Madangiacoccus Williams, 1985
  156. Madeurycoccus Mamet, 1959
  157. Malaicoccus Takahashi, 1950
  158. Malekoccus Matile-Ferrero, 1988
  159. Mammicoccus Balachowsky, 1959
  160. Marendellea de Lotto, 1967
  161. Mascarenococcus Mamet, 1940
  162. Maskellococcus Cox, 1987
  163. Mediococcus Kiritschenko, 1936
  164. Melanococcus Williams, 1985
  165. Metadenopsis Matesova, 1966
  166. Metadenopus Sulc, 1933
  167. Miconicoccus Williams & Miller, 1999
  168. Mirococcopsis Borchsenius, 1948
  169. Mirococcus Borchsenius, 1947
  170. Miscanthicoccus Takahashi, 1958
  171. Misericoccus Ferris, 1953
  172. Mollicoccus Williams, 1960
  173. Mombasinia De Lotto, 1964
  174. Moystonia Williams, 1985
  175. Mutabilicoccus Williams, 1960
  176. Naiacoccus Green, 1919
  177. Nairobia De Lotto, 1964
  178. Natalensia Brain, 1915
  179. Neochavesia Williams & de Willink, 1992
  180. Neoclavicoccus Cohic, 1959
  181. Neorhizoecus Hambleton, 1916
  182. Neoripersia Kanda, 1943
  183. Neosimmondsia Laing, 1930
  184. Neotrionymus Borchsenius, 1948
  185. Nesococcus Ehrhorn, 1916
  186. Nesopedronia Beardsley, 1971
  187. Nesticoccus Tang, 1977
  188. Nipaecoccus Šulc, 1945
  189. Octococcus Hall, 1939
  190. Odacoccus Williams & Watson, 1988
  191. Ohiacoccus Beardsley, 1971
  192. Oracella Ferris, 1950
  193. Orstomicoccus Mamet, 1962
  194. Oudablis Signoret, 1882
  195. Oxyacanthus Chevallier, 1836
  196. Palaucoccus Beardsley, 1966
  197. Palmicultor Williams, 1963
  198. Paludicoccus Ferris, 1918
  199. Pandanicola Beardsley, 1966
  200. Papuacoccus Williams & Watson, 1988
  201. Paracoccus Ezzat & McConnell, 1956
  202. Paradiscococcus Williams, 1985
  203. Paradoxococcus McKenzie, 1962
  204. Paraferrisia Williams & de Boer, 1973
  205. Paramococcus Foldi & Cox, 1989
  206. Paramonostherium Williams, 1985
  207. Paramyrmococcus Takahashi, 1941
  208. Parapaludicoccus Mamet, 1962
  209. Parapedronia Balachowsky, 1953
  210. Paraputo Laing, 1929
  211. Pararhodania Ter-Grigorian, 1964
  212. Paratrionymus Borchsenius, 1948
  213. Pedrococcus Mamet, 1942
  214. Pedronia Green, 1922
  215. Peliococcopsis Borchesenius, 1948
  216. Peliococcus Borchsenius, 1948
  217. Pellizzaricoccus Kozar, 1991
  218. Penthococcus Danzig, 1972
  219. Peridiococcus Williams, 1985
  220. Perystrix Gavrilov, 2004
  221. Phenacoccopsis Borchsenius, 1948
  222. Phenacoccus Cockerell, 1893
  223. Pilococcus Takahashi, 1928
  224. Planococcoides Ezzat & McConnell, 1956
  225. Planococcus Ferris, 1950
  226. Pleistocerarius Matile-Ferrero, 1970
  227. Plotococcus Miller & Denno, 1977
  228. Poecilococcus Brookes, 1981
  229. Polystomophora Borchsenius, 1948
  230. Porococcus Cockerell, 1898
  231. Promyrmococcus Williams, 2002
  232. Prorhizoecus Miller & McKenzie, 1971
  233. Prorsococcus Williams, 1985
  234. Pseudantonina Green, 1922
  235. Pseudococcus Westwood, 1840
  236. Pseudorhizoecus Green, 1933
  237. Pseudorhodania Borchsenius, 1962
  238. Pseudoripersia Cockerell, 1899
  239. Pseudotrionymus Beardsley, 1971
  240. Pygmaeococcus McKenzie, 1960
  241. Quadrigallicoccus Williams & Miller, 1999
  242. Radicoccus Hambleton, 1946
  243. Rastrococcus Ferris, 1954
  244. Renicaula Cox, 1987
  245. Rhizoecus Künckel d'Herculais, 1878
  246. Rhodania Goux, 1935
  247. Ripersia Signoret, 1875
  248. Ritsemia Lichtenstein, 1879
  249. Saccharicoccus Ferris, 1950
  250. Saliococcus Kanda, 1934
  251. Sarococcus Williams & de Boer, 1973
  252. Scaptococcus McKenzie, 1964
  253. Seabrina Neves, 1943
  254. Serrolecanium Shinji, 1935
  255. Seyneria Goux, 1990
  256. Sinococcus Wu & Zheng, 2001
  257. Spartinacoccus Kosztarab, 1996
  258. Sphaerococcus Maskell, 1892
  259. Spilococcus Ferris, 1950
  260. Stachycoccus Borchsenius, 1962
  261. Stemmatomerinx Ferris, 1950
  262. Stipacoccus Tang, 1992
  263. Strandanna De Lotto, 1969
  264. Strombococcus Williams, 1985
  265. Synacanthococcus Morrison, 1920
  266. Syrmococcus Ferris, 1953
  267. Takahashicoccus Kanda, 1959
  268. Tasmanicoccus Williams, 1985
  269. Thaimyrmococcus Williams, 2002
  270. Tomentocera Beardsley, 1964
  271. Trabutina Marchal, 1904
  272. Trabutinella Borchsenius, 1948
  273. Trechocorys Curtis, 1843
  274. Tridiscus Ferris, 1950
  275. Trimerococcus Balachowsky, 1952
  276. Trionymus Berg, 1899
  277. Trochiscococcus Williams & Pellizzari, 1997
  278. Tylococcus Newstead, 1897
  279. Tympanococcus Williams, 1967
  280. Ventrispina Williams, 1985
  281. Villosicoccus Williams, 1985
  282. Volvicoccus Goux, 1945
  283. Vryburgia De Lotto, 1967
  284. Xenococcus Silvestri, 1924
  285. Yudnapinna Williams, 1985

Extinct genera:

Note:

  1. ^ synonym of Giraudia: monotypic Gouxia danielaferreroae (Goux, 1989).

References

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  1. ^ "Pseudococcidae Heymons, 1915". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  2. ^ Noe, Ronald (November 21, 2012). "Fire Ants Protect Mealybugs against Their Natural Enemies by Utilizing the Leaf Shelters Constructed by the Leaf Roller Sylepta derogata". PLOS ONE. 7 (11). US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health: e49982. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...749982Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049982. PMC 3503828. PMID 23185505.
  3. ^ Bettiga, Larry J (8 September 2015). "Assessing Grapevine Leafroll and Red Blotch Disease Impacts in Local Vineyards". ANR Blogs. Salinas Valley Agriculture. Retrieved 23 December 2022.
  4. ^ Sharma, A.; Pati, P. K. (2013). "First record of Ashwagandha as a new host to the invasive mealybug (Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley) in India". Entomological News. 123 (1): 59–62. doi:10.3157/021.123.0114. S2CID 85645762.
  5. ^ a b "Cactus control in the Klein Karoo". Rhodes University. 2014-09-17. Retrieved 2021-04-19.
  6. ^ a b Johnson, M.S.; et al. (2001). "Acropyga and Azteca Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with Scale Insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea): 20 Million Years of Intimate Symbiosis". American Museum Novitates (3335): 1–18. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2001)335<0001:AAAAHF>2.0.CO;2. S2CID 55067700.
  7. ^ SP290-S-Mealybugs on Ornamentals (Report). The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service. 2003. SP290S-1.5M-5/03(Rev) E12-4615-00-030-03.
  8. ^ "Cryptolaemus and lacewings for mealybug and scale control" (PDF). Department of Primary Studies, NSW. New South Wales. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  9. ^ Callier, Viviane (8 June 2022). "Mitochondria and the origin of eukaryotes". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-060822-2. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
  10. ^ BioLib.cz: family: mealybugs - Pseudococcidae Heymons, 1915 (retrieved 14 May 2024)
  11. ^ GBIF Chorizococcus McKenzie, 1960

Further reading

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  • Jahn, G. C. and J. W. Beardsley (1994). "Big-headed ants, Pheidole megacephala: Interference with the biological control of gray pineapple mealybugs". In D.F. Williams [ed.] Exotic Ants: Biology, Impact and Control of Introduced Species. Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 199–205. ISBN 9780813386157.
  • Jahn, G. C. and J. W. Beardsley (1998). "Presence/absence sampling of mealybugs, ants, and major predators in pineapple". J. Plant Protection in the Tropics 11(1):73–79.
  • Jahn, Gary C., J. W. Beardsley, and H. González-Hernández (2003). "A review of the association of ants with mealybug wilt disease of pineapple". Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society. 36:9–28.
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