Northwestern Proto-Indo-European language
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| Northwestern Proto-Indo-European | |
|---|---|
| p-NWIE | |
| Reconstruction of | Indo-European languages |
| Region | Central Europe (Únětice culture (?)) |
| Era | c. 2400 – c. 1600 BC |
| Lower-order reconstructions | |
| Part of a series on |
| Indo-European topics |
|---|
 |
The Northwestern Proto-Indo-European language is a proposed proto-language which would have been the most recent common ancestor of the Celtic, Italic, and Germanic branches of Indo-European languages. It has been proposed in order to explain these languages' alleged closer lexical proximity, though there is no consensus on whether these languages from a clade.[1] Additionally, there are extra-linguistic archaeological and genetic evidences that are compatible with the existence of Northwestern Proto-Indo-European.
Urheimat
[edit]The diffusion area or urheimat of Northwestern Proto-Indo-European is thought to be in Central Europe. It has been proposed that populations associated with the eastern part of the Bell Beaker culture, particularly in the period 2400–1800 BC, may have been linked to a possible Northwestern Proto-Indo-European. This culture later evolved into the Únětice culture (2300–1600 BC), whose chronology aligns well with a stage preceding the split between Proto-Italo-Celtic and Proto-Germanic. In the northern region, the Únětice culture is believed to have given rise to the Nordic Bronze Age (1750–500 BC) and the Jastorf culture (600–1 BC), the latter commonly associated with clearly Germanic-speaking peoples. Slightly further west, the Únětice culture eventually developed into the Tumulus culture (1600–1200 BC), the Urnfield culture (1250–750 BC), and the Terramare culture (1500–1100 BC), which may have been associated with Proto-Italo-Celtic.[citation needed]
Later, the Hallstatt C and D cultures (750–450 BC) are usually identified with Proto-Celtic peoples, as is the La Tène culture, which represents a later development. The Italic peoples may be associated with several archaeological cultures linked to the Urnfield tradition, which spread from northern Italy. Proto-Italics have been linked to the final phase of the Urnfield culture in Italy, known as the Proto-Villanovan culture (1200–900 BC). Although the Villanovan culture itself is considered a direct predecessor of the Etruscan culture, it may have also encompassed speakers of Italic languages.[citation needed]
Genetic Evidence
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Recent work in archaeogenetics has identified genetic markers that were spread along with the Indo-European migrations, including the Y-chromosome haplogroups Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA) and Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA). Among them, the R1b haplogroup is more frequent among speakers of northwestern European langauges, whereas R1a is more common further east. Though there are some exceptions to this pattern, such as the prevalence of R1a in modern Germany, these have been proposed to have originated from later migrations. This evidence has been taken to support the hypothesis that the northwestern languages form a clade.[citation needed]
Linguistic Description
[edit]In Swadesh list, the percentage of cognates between Proto-Italic and Proto-Celtic exceeds 40%, the same as between Proto-Italic and Proto-Germanic (the percentage of cognates between Proto-Celtic and Proto-Germanic in that list is slightly below 40%). Furthermore, considering broader vocabulary lists, it has been confirmed that Germanic languages share more lexical items with the Italic family than with Celtic languages.[2] The morphological features between Italic and Celtic have been widely discussed, leading to the general assumption of a closer connection between these two groups. A 2002 study by Ringe, Warnow, & Taylor provided evidence in favor of the "Italo-Celtic" hypothesis.[3] The Dutch scholar Frederik H. H. Kortlandt has been working on the Italo-Celtic relationship and, in 2007, attempted the linguistic reconstruction of a Proto-Italo-Celtic language.[4] Other languages, not properly Celtic or Italic, such as Lusitanian and perhaps ancient Ligurian, could be assigned to this group.[citation needed]
Regarding linguistic evidence, studies on hydronymy, as reflected in the so-called Old European hydronymy[5] (Krahe 1964, 1949; Nicolaisen 1957), reveal an almost uniform system of river naming that displays Indo-European water-related words and suffixes resembling late Proto-Indo-European.[6][7]
Phonology
[edit]The consonantal inventory of Northwestern Proto-Indo-European is similar to that of Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic, and Proto-Germanic and is reconstructed as follows:[citation needed]
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Labiovelar Plosive *p b *t *d *k *ɡ *kʷ *ɡʷ Fricative *β *ð *s *ɣ *ɣʷ Nasal *m *n (*ŋ) Sonorant *r *l *j *w
The phonetic evolution would have been as follows:
- The voiced aspirates of Indo-European /*bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ, *gʷʰ/ are hypothesized to have developed into voiced fricatives /*β, *ð, *ɣ, *ɣʷ/. The first three remained as such in Germanic (although transcribed as /*b, *d, *g/, evidence suggests these sounds were voiced fricatives in Germanic). In Italic, /*β, *ð, *ɣ/ remained unchanged in medial position but devoiced in other contexts, yielding the allophones [*ɸ, *θ, *x]. As for /*ɣʷ/, Latin developed it into medial /gʷ/ gu- or /w-/ in initial position. In Proto-Celtic, /*ɣʷ/ also became /*gʷ/.
- The plosives /*p, *b, *t, *d, *k, *g, *kʷ, *gʷ/ remained unchanged. Later, Celtic underwent the shift /*p/ > /*ɸ/ > and /*gʷ/ > /*b/. In Germanic, the First Consonant Shift led to the devoicing of voiced plosives and the fricativization of voiceless plosives. In Northwestern Proto-Indo-European, pIE consonants reconstructed as /*ḱ, *ǵ/ merged with the outcome of pIE /*k, *g/.
Morphology
[edit]The nominal declension varies slightly depending on the thematic vowel and whether it belongs to the athematic inflection. This variation is still observable in Germanic, Italic, and Celtic, suggesting it originates from their common ancestor. The thematic inflection system included the following cases:
| Number | Case | O-stem | A-stem | Consonantal stem | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| p-Ital | p-Celt | p-Germ | p-NWIE | p-Ital | p-Celt | p-Germ | p-NWIE | p-Ital | p-Celt | p-Germ | p-NWIE | ||
| Sing. | Nom. | *-os | *-os | *-az | *-os | *-ā | *-ā | *-ō | *-ā | *-s | *-s | *-s | *-s |
| Voc. | *-e | *-e | -∅ | *-e | |||||||||
| Acc. | *-om | *-om | *-ą | *-om | *-ām | *-ām | *-ǭ | *-ām | *-əm | *-əm | *ų | *-əm | |
| Gen. | *-ī, *-osio |
*-ī | *-as,*-is | *-ās | *-ās | *-ōz | *-ās | *-is | *-os | *-iz | *-is, *-os | ||
| Dat. | *-ōi | *-ūi | *-ai | *-oi | *-āi | *-āi | *-ōi | *-āi | *-ei | *-ei | -i | *-ei | |
| Loc. | *-ei | *-ei | *-ei | -i | -i | *-i | *-i | ||||||
| Abl. | *-ōd | *-ū | *-ō(d) | *-ād | *-ī | *-ā(d) | *-ī | *-ī | |||||
| Instr. | *-ō | *-ō | *-e | *-ē | *-e | ||||||||
| Pl. | Nom. | *-oi, *-ōs |
*-oi | *-ōz | *-oi, *-ōs |
*-ās | *-ās | *-ōz | *-ās | *-es | *-es | *-iz | *-es |
| Voc. | *-ūs | ||||||||||||
| Acc. | *-ons | *-anz | *-oms | *-ans | *-ams | *-əns | *-ās | *-uns | *-əms | ||||
| Gen. | *-om | *-om | *-ǫ̂ | *-om | *-āzom | *-om | *-ǫ̂ | *-om | *-om | *-om | *-ǫ̂ | *-om | |
| Dat. | *-ois | *-obos | *-maz | *-oβos | *-ais | *-ābos | *-ōmaz | *-aβos | *-βos | *-obos | *-umaz | *-mos | |
| Loc. | *-obis | *-oβis | *-ābis | *-aβis | *-obis | *-mis | |||||||
| Abl. | *-ōmiz | ||||||||||||
| Instr. | *-ūs | *-miz | |||||||||||
The verbal inflection distinguishes between an active voice (with endings common to all three branches) and a mediopassive voice (where Italic and Celtic share similar endings). Additionally, Germanic reconstructs dual forms, whereas Italic preserves only singular and plural. The primary, secondary, and stative endings for all three branches are as follows:
| Number | Person | Primary | Secondary | Stative | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| p-Ital | p-Celt | p-Germ | p-NWIE | p-Ital | p-Celt | p-Germ | p-NWIE | p-Ital | p-Celt | p-Germ | p-NWIE | ||
| Sing. | 1st | *-ō | *-ū | *-ō,*-mi | *-ō, *-mi | *-m | *-am | *-ų | *-m | *-ai | *-a | *-∅ | *-a(i) |
| 2nd | *-s | *-si | *-si | *-si | *-s | *-s | *-z | *-s | *-tai | *-as | *-∅ | *-ta | |
| 3rd | *-t | *-ti | *-þi | *-ti | *-t | *-t | *-∅,*-þ | *-t | *-ei | *-e | *-∅ | *-ei | |
| Pl. | 1st | *-mos | *-mosi | *-maz | *-mos | *-mos | *-mo(s) | *-maz | *-mos | *-mo | *um | *-mo(s) | |
| 2nd | -tes | *-tesi | *-iþ | *-tes | -tes | *-te(s) | *-uð | *-tes | -e | *-te | *-uþ | *-te | |
| 3rd | *-nt | *-nti | *-nþi | *-nti | *-nt | *-ant | *-un(ð) | *-nt | *-ēri | *-ar | *-un | *-Vr | |
Primary endings are used with the present, secondary endings with the imperfect, and stative endings are typically used in the perfect tense.
Lexical Comparison
[edit]The numerals reconstructed for the three branches descending from Northwestern Proto-Indo-European (pNWIE), along with the original reconstructed form, are:
| PROTO- GERMANIC |
PROTO- ITALIC |
PROTO- CELTIC |
proto-NWIE | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *ainaz | *oinos | *oinos | *oinos |
| 2 | *twai | *duō | *dwei | *dwō(-i) |
| 3 | *θreiz | *treies | *treis | *treis |
| 4 | *fiθwor | *kʷetwōr | *kʷetwar- | *kʷetwor |
| 5 | *fimf- | *kʷenkʷe | *kʷenkʷe | *kʷenkʷe~ *penkʷe |
| 6 | *seks | *seks | *sweχ | *sweks |
| 7 | *sibun | *septem | *seχtam | *septəm |
| 8 | *ahtō | *oktō | *oχtū | *oktō |
| 9 | *niwun | *nowem | *nowan | *newən |
| 10 | *tehun | *dekem | *dekam | *dekəm |
Other reconstructible terms from the shared vocabulary, which appear in the Swadesh list, are the following terms:
| GLOSS | PROTO- ITALIC |
PROTO- CELTIC |
PROTO- GERMANIC |
proto-NWIE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'woman' | (*fēmanā) | *benā | *kʷenǭ | *gʷenā |
| 'man' | *wiros | *wiros | *weraz (*manwaz) |
*wiros |
| 'person' | *hemō | *gdonyos | *γuman- | *ɣəmmǭ |
| 'fish' | *piskis | *ɸēskos | *fiskaz | *peiskos |
| 'dog' | *kō | *kū | *hundaz | *kōn- |
| 'louse' | (*pezdis) | *luwā | *lūs | *lūs |
| 'root' | *wrādīks | *wridā | *wrōts | *wrāds |
| 'skin' | *pelnis | (*kroknom) | *fellą | *peln- |
| 'blood' | *kruwor | *krowos | (*blōþą) | *krowor |
| 'bone' | *os | *astkornu | (*bainą) | *ost- |
| 'egg' | *ōwom | *āuyom | *ajją | *ōwyóm |
| 'horn' | *kornū | *kornu- | *hurną | *kr-no- |
| 'feather' | (*plow(k)smā) | *ɸet- | *feþrō | *petr- |
| 'ear' | *auzis | *ausos | *ausô | *ausos |
| 'eye' | *okʷelos | (*lukato-) | *augô | *okʷ- |
| 'nose' | *nās(os) | *srognā | *nasō | *nās- |
| 'tongue' | *denɣwā | *tangʷāss | *tungǭ | *denɣwās |
| 'tooth' | *dents | *dantom | *tanþs | *donts |
| 'foot' | *peds | (*tregess) | *fōts | *pōds |
| 'knee' | *genū | *glūnos | *knewą | *gnew- |
| 'breasts' | (*pektos) | *brusū | *breustą | *breus- |
| 'heart' | *kord | *kridyom | *hertô | *krd-yo- |
| 'sun' | *swōl | *sāwol | *sōwulō | *sāwol |
| 'star' | *stērolā | *sterā | *sternǭ | *sterā |
| 'sand' | *sabolom | *samdaz | *samðos | |
| 'path' | *wijā | *wegaz | *weɣ- | |
| 'big' | *magnos | *māros | *mikilaz | *meg- |
| 'long' | *dlongos | (*sīros) | *langaz | *dlonɣos |
| 'red' | *ruðros | *roudos | *raudaz | *rouðós |
| 'green' | (*weyziðis) | *glastos | *grōniz | *ɣrā- |
| 'yellow' | *heliwos | (*bodyos) | *gelwaz | *ɣel(i)wos |
| 'cold' | *gel- | (*ougros) | *kaldaz | *gol- |
| 'full' | *plēnos | *ɸlānos | *fullaz | *pl(ē)nos |
| 'new' | *nowos | *nouyos | *niwjaz | *newyos |
| 'eat' | *ed- | *es- | *et- | *ed- |
| 'drink' | *pib- | *ɸibe- | (*drink-) | *pibe- |
| 'see' | *wid- | *wele- | (*sehw-) | *weid- |
| 'know' | *gnō-sk- | (*winde-) | *kunn- | *gn-(sk)- |
| 'sleep' | *swep- | (*kuxske-) | *slēp- | *swep- |
| 'swim' | *snā- | *snā- | (*swimm-) | *snā- |
| 'lie down' | (*yak-) | lege- | *ligj- | *leɣye- |
| 'come' | *gʷen- | *kʷem- | *gʷem- | |
| 'sit' | *sed- | *sed- | *sitj- | *sed- |
| 'stand' | *stā- | *sista- | *stand- | *sta- |
| 'night' | *nokts | *noxs | *nahts | *nokts |
| 'name' | *nomən | *anman | *namô | *nomən |
When any of the terms in a row is not cognate, it is indicated in parentheses.
Some additional terms that do not appear in the short Swadesh list are:
| GLOSS | PROTO- ITALIC |
PROTO- CELTIC |
PROTO- GERMANIC |
proto-NWIE |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 'goat' | *kapra | *gabros | *hafraz | *kapros |
| 'to sing' | *kan- | *kaneti | *hanjō 'bird that sings' |
*kan- |
| 'deer' | *kerwos | *karwos | *kerwos | |
| 'bull' | *tawros | *tarwos | *þeuraz | *tawros |
| 'ox, cow' | *gʷōs | *bāus | *kōz | *gʷōs |
| 'pig' | *sūs | *sukkus | *sūz | *sūs |
| 'horse' | *ekwos | *ekʷos | *ehwaz | *ekwos |
| 'wolf' | *lukʷos | *ulkos(?) 'malicious' |
*wulfaz | *wlkʷos |
| 'flour, grain' | *far | *baras | *baraz | *βar- |
| 'king' | *rēks | *riks | *rekaz | *rēgs |
| 'neighbor' | *keiwis | *kē-de- | *hīwô | *keiwos |
| 'body' | *korpos | *korpos | *hrefaz | *kərpos |
| 'hand' | *manos | *menos | *mundō(?) | *mən- |
| 'joint' | *koksā | *koksā | *hahsjō | *koks(y)ā |
| 'leaf, flower' | *flozā | *blatos | *bladą | *βlo- |
| 'silver' | *argentom | *argantom | *ark-rą | *arg-əntom |
| 'salt' | *sāls | *sāleinos | *saltą | *sāl- |
| 'wheel' | *rotā | *rotos | *raþą | *rotom |
| 'dry land' | *terzā | *tīros | *þersaną | *terso- |
| 'sea' | *mari | *mori | *mari | *mori |
| 'day' | *djous | *diyos | *dagaz | *ðeɣʷʰos |
| 'between' | *enter | *enter | *under | *enter |
| 'to have' | *ɣabe-o | *gabye-ti | *habj-aną | *ɣaβy- |
References
[edit]- ^ Oettinger, Norbert (1997). "Grundsätzliche Überlegungen zum Nordwest-Indogermanischen". Incontri Linguistici. 20: 93–111. Retrieved 2025-01-07.
- ^ "A Grammar of Proto-Germanic, Winfred P. Lehmann Jonathan Slocum" (PDF).
- ^ Ringe, Donald; Warnow, Tandy; Taylor, Anne (2002). "Indo-European and Computational Cladistics". Transactions of the Philological Society. 100 (1). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing: 59–129. doi:10.1111/1467-968X.00091. ISSN 0079-1636. OCLC 195112762. BL Shelfmark 8993.670000.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[permanent dead link] - ^ Kortlandt, Frederik H .H., Italo-Celtic Origins and Prehistoric Development of the Irish Language, Leiden Studies in Indo-European Vol. 14, Rodopi 2007, ISBN 978-90-420-2177-8.
- ^ Hans Krahe, Unsere ältesten Flussnamen, Wiesbaden Edition Otto Harrassowiitz (1964)
- ^ Adrados, F. R. (1998). Adrados, F. R.; Bernabé, A.; Mendoza, J. (eds.). La reconstrucción del indoeuropeo y de su diferenciación dialectal. Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Clásicas.
- ^ Quiles, Carlos (2019). A Game of Clans: collectores venatoresque, agricolae pastoresque: Population genomics, archaeology, and ethnolinguistics from modern humans to the Copper Age. Badajoz, Spain: Independently Published. p. 357. ISBN 978-1072003229. Retrieved 2025-01-07.
Further reading
[edit]- Adrados, F. R. (1998). Adrados, F. R.; Bernabé, A.; Mendoza, J. (eds.). La reconstrucción del indoeuropeo y de su diferenciación dialectal. Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Clásicas.
- Mallory, J. P. (2013). "The Indo-Europeanization of Atlantic Europe". In Koch, John T.; Cunliffe, Barry (eds.). Celtic from the West 2: Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. pp. 17–40. ISBN 978-1-84217-529-3.