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List of human evolution fossils

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The following charts give a brief overview of several notable hominin fossil finds relating to human evolution beginning with the formation of the Hominini tribe in the late Miocene (roughly 6 million years ago).

As there are thousands of fossils, mostly fragmentary, often consisting of single bones or isolated teeth with complete skulls and skeletons rare,[1] this overview is not meant to be complete, but does show some of the most important finds. The fossils are arranged by approximate age as determined by radiometric dating and/or incremental dating and the species name represents current consensus - if there is no clear scientific consensus the other possible classifications are indicated. Deprecated classifications may be found on the fossil's page.

Most of the fossils shown are not considered direct ancestors to Homo sapiens but are closely related to direct ancestors and are therefore important to the study of the lineage.

Late Miocene

7 million - 5.3 million years old

Name Age Species Year
discovered 		Country Discovered by
TM 266 (Toumai) 7 Ma[2] Sahelanthropus tchadensis 2001 Chad Alain Beauvilain, Fanone Gongdibe, Mahamat Adoum and Ahounta Djimdoumalbaye
BAR 1000'00 6 Ma[3] Orrorin tugenensis 2000 Kenya Martin Pickford, Kiptalam Cheboi, Dominique Gommery, Pierre Mein, Brigitte Senut,

Pliocene

5.3 million - 2.58 million years old

Name Age Species Year
discovered 		Country Discovered by
Ardi 4.4 Ma[4] Ardipithecus ramidus 1994 Ethiopia Yohannes Haile-Selassie
KNM-LT 329 4.2 - 5 Ma[5] Australopithecus anamensis 1967 Kenya Arnold Lewis, Bryan Patterson[6][7]
KNM-TH 13150 4.15-5.25 Ma[8] Australopithecus anamensis 1984 Kenya -
KNM-KP 271 4 Ma[9] Australopithecus anamensis 1965 Kenya Bryan Patterson[6]
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Laetoli Footprints 3.7 Ma Bipedal hominid 1976 Tanzania Mary Leakey
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		LH 4 2.9 - 3.9 Ma Australopithecus afarensis 1974 Laetoli, Tanzania Donald Johanson[10]
K 12 (Abel) 3.5 Australopithecus bahrelghazali 1995 Chad Michel Brunet
Flat Faced Man[11] 3.5 Ma Kenyanthropus platyops 1999 Lake Turkana, Kenya Justus Erus and Meave Leakey[12]
Stw 573 (Little foot) 3.3 Ma Australopithecus ? 1994 South Africa Ronald J. Clarke
DIK-1 (Selam) 3.3 Ma Australopithecus afarensis 2000 Ethiopia Zeresenay Alemseged
AL 288-1 (Lucy) 3.2 Ma Australopithecus afarensis 1974 Ethiopia Tom Gray, Donald Johanson, Yves Coppens and Maurice Taieb
AL 200-1 3 - 3.2 Ma Australopithecus afarensis 1975 Ethiopia Donald Johanson Yves Coppens and Maurice Taieb
AL 129-1 3 - 3.2 Ma Australopithecus afarensis 1973 Ethiopia Donald Johanson
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		AL 444-2 3 Ma Australopithecus afarensis 1991 Ethiopia Bill Kimbel

Pleistocene

Lower Paleolithic: 2.58 million - 300,000

Name Age Species Date
discovered 		Country Discovered by
Taung 1
(Taung Child) 		2.5 Ma Australopithecus africanus 1924 South Africa Raymond Dart
KNM WT 17000
(The Black Skull) 		2.5 Ma Paranthropus aethiopicus 1985 Kenya Alan Walker
Uraha Jawbone [13] Uraha 501 2.3 - 2.5 Ma Homo rudolfensis 1991 Malawi Tyson Msiska, Timothy Bromage, Friedemann Schrenk
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		STS 14 2.04-2.58 Ma Australopithecus africanus 1947 South Africa Robert Broom
Image at Smithsonian STS 71 2.04 - 2.58 Ma Australopithecus africanus 1947 South Africa Robert Broom and John T. Robinson
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		STS 52 2.04 -2 .58 Ma Australopithecus africanus 1947 South Africa Robert Broom
STS 5
(Mrs. Ples) 		2.04Ma Australopithecus africanus 1947 South Africa Robert Broom
TM 1517 2 Ma Paranthropus robustus 1938 South Africa Gert Terblanche
MH1 image at
Scientific American 		MH1 1.977-1.98 Ma[14] Australopithecus sediba 2008 South Africa Lee R. Berger
KNM ER 1813 1.9 Ma Homo habilis 1973 Kenya Kamoya Kimeu
KNM ER 1470 1.9 Ma Homo rudolfensis 1972 Kenya Bernard Ngeneo[15]
Image at Smithsonian OH 24
(Twiggy) 		1.8 Ma Homo habilis 1968 Tanzania Peter Nzube
OH 8 image
of foot at
Modern Human
Origins 		OH 8 1.8 Ma Homo habilis 1960 Tanzania
OH 5
(Zinj or
nutcracker man) 		1.8 Ma Paranthropus boisei 1959 Tanzania Mary Leakey
D2700 1.8 Ma Homo erectus 2001 Georgia
KNM-ER 62000[16] 1.78 -1.9 Mya Homo rudolfensis 2012 Koobi Fora, Kenya Meave Leakey's team
KNM-ER 62003 (mandibular fragment)[16] 1.78 -1.9 Mya Homo rudolfensis 2012 Koobi Fora, Kenya Meave Leakey's team
KNM-ER 60000 (mandible)[16] 1.78 -1.9 Mya Homo rudolfensis 2012 Koobi Fora, Kenya Meave Leakey's team
OH 7 1.75 Ma Homo habilis 1960 Tanzania Jonathan Leakey
KNM ER 3733 1.75 Ma Homo erectus 1975 Kenya Bernard Ngeneo
KNM ER 1805 1.74 Ma Homo habilis 1973/4 Kenya Paul Abell
Yuanmou Man 1.7 Ma / 0.5-0.6 Ma (disputed)[17] Homo erectus 1965 China Fang Qian
KNM ER 406 1.7 Ma Paranthropus boisei 1969 Kenya Richard Leakey
KNM ER 732[18] 1.7 Ma Paranthropus boisei 1970 Kenya Richard Leakey
Image at Smithsonian KNM ER 23000 1.7 Ma Paranthropus boisei 1990 Koobi Fora, Kenya Benson Kyongo
KNM WT 17400[citation needed] 1.7 Ma Paranthropus boisei Kenya
KNM WT 15000
(Turkana Boy) 		1.6 Ma Homo ergaster 1984 Kenya Kamoya Kimeu
STW 53
image at
Modern Human
Origins 		StW 53 1.5 - 2 Ma Homo gautengensis 1976 South Africa A. R. Hughes
SK 847
image at
Modern Human
Origins 		SK 847 1.5 - 2 Ma Homo habilis 1949 South Africa
DNH 7
image at
Modern Human
Origins 		DNH 7
(Eurydice) 		1.5 - 2 Ma Paranthropus robustus 1994 South Africa André Keyser
Image at Smithsonian SK 46 1.5 - 1.8 Ma Paranthropus robustus 1949 South Africa Robert Broom
Peninj Mandible 1.5 Ma Paranthropus boisei 1964 Tanzania Richard Leakey
Chellean OH 9
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		OH 9
(Chellean Man) 		1.5 Ma Homo erectus 1960 Tanzania Louis Leakey
KNM ER 992 1.5 Ma Homo erectus 1971 Kenya Richard Leakey
KNM ER 3883 1.4 - 1.6 Ma Homo erectus 1976 Kenya Richard Leakey
KGA 10-525[citation needed] 1.4 Ma Paranthropus boisei 1993 Ethiopia A. Amzaye
Atapuerca Jawbone[19] 1.2 Ma Homo antecessor 2008 Spain Eudald Carbonell
Daka 1.0 Ma Homo erectus 1997 Ethiopia Henry Gilbert
Sangiran 4 1 Ma Homo erectus 1939 Indonesia G.H.R. von Koenigswald
780k - 858k Homo erectus 1994 Spain Bermúdez & Arsuaga
Sangiran 2 0.7 - 1.6 Ma Homo erectus 1937 Indonesia G.H.R. von Koenigswald
Image at Smithsonian Trinil 2
Pithecanthropus-1
or
Java Man 		0.7 -1 Ma Homo erectus 1891 Indonesia Eugène Dubois
Ternifine 2-3[citation needed] 700k Homo erectus 1954 Algeria C. Arambourg
Sangiran 17
image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Sangiran 17 700k Homo erectus 1969 Indonesia S. Sartono
Peking Man 680k - 780k Homo erectus 1921 China Davidson Black
[20] Madam Buya 600k - 1.4 Ma Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus 1997 Eritrea Ernesto Abbate
Bodo
image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Bodo 600k Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus 1976 Ethiopia A. Asfaw
Mauer 1
(Heidelberg Man) 		500k Homo heidelbergensis 1907 Germany Daniel Hartmann
500k[21] Homo erectus 1923 India V. S. Wakankar
Saldanha man Saldanha man 500k Homo rhodesiensis 1953 South Africa
Eartham Pit, Boxgrove Boxgrove Man 478k - 524k Homo heidelbergensis 1994 UK
Hexian PA830
image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Hexian 400k - 500k Homo erectus 1980 China
Skull 5 (Miguelón) 400k Homo heidelbergensis 1992 Spain Bermúdez, Arsuaga & Carbonell
Swanscombe Man 400k Homo heidelbergensis 1935 UK Alvan T Marston
Sale[citation needed] 400k Homo rhodesiensis 1971 Morocco
Arago 21
(Tautavel Man) 		400k Homo heidelbergensis 1971 France Henry de Lumley
Image at Smithsonian Ndutu 350k Homo rhodesiensis 1973 Tanzania A.A. Mturi
Steinheim Skull 350k Homo heidelbergensis 1933 Germany

Middle Paleolithic: 300,000 - 50,000 years old

Name Age Species Year
discovered 		Country Discovered by
Smithsonian's Human Origins Program Petralona 1 250k - 500k Homo heidelbergensis 1960 Greece
Ngandong 7 250k Homo erectus 1931 Indonesia C. ter Haar and G. H. R. von Koenigswald
Altamura Man 250k Homo neanderthalensis Italy
Bontnewydd (Pontynewydd) 230k Homo neanderthalensis 1981 UK
Dali
image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Dali 209k ±23k (disputed)[22] Homo erectus
or
Homo sapiens 		1978 China Shuntang Liu
Broken Hill 1
(Kabwe Cranium
or
Rhodesian Man) 		200k - 300k Homo rhodesiensis 1921 Zambia Tom Zwiglaar
Omo 1
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Omo 1 190k Homo sapiens 1967 Ethiopia Richard Leakey
Omo II
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Omo 2 190k Homo sapiens Ethiopia Richard Leakey
Herto skull
images at
ABC Science 		Herto remains 160k Homo sapiens idaltu 1997 Ethiopia Tim White
Jebel Irhoud 1
skull
image at
Max Planck Institute 		Jebel Irhoud 1 160k Homo sapiens 1991 Morocco
Jebel Irhoud 2 160k Homo sapiens 1991 Morocco
Jebel Irhoud 3
Mandible
Image at
PhysOrg.com 		Jebel Irhoud 3 160k Homo sapiens 1991 Morocco
Jebel Irhoud 4 160k Homo sapiens 1991 Morocco
Tabun 1
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Tabun C1 120k Homo neanderthalensis 1967 Israel Arthur Jelinek
Krapina C
Images at
Modern Human
Origins 		Krapina 100k - 127k [23] Homo neanderthalensis 1899 Croatia Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger
Qafzeh VI
images at
Modern Human
Origins 		Qafzeh 6 90k - 100k[23] Homo sapiens 1930 Israel R. Neuville M Stekelis
Qafzeh IX 90k - 100k[23] Homo sapiens[24] 1933 Israel T. McCown and H. Moivus, Jr.
Qafzeh VI
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Qafzeh VI 90k - 100k[23] Homo sapiens 1933 Israel T. McCown and H. Moivus, Jr.
Scladena 80k - 127k[23] Homo neanderthalensis Belgium
Skhul V 80k - 120k Homo sapiens 1933 Israel T. McCown and H. Moivus, Jr.
Skhul IX 80k - 120k Homo sapiens Israel
Klasies
Images at
Modern Human
Origins 		Klasies River Caves 75k - 125k Homo sapiens 1960 South Africa Ray Inskeep, Robin Singer, John Wymer, Hilary Deacon
Obi-Rakhmat 1[25] 75k [23] Homo neanderthalensis 2003 Uzbekistan
Teshik-Tash Skull[26] 70k Homo neanderthalensis 1938 Uzbekistan A. Okladnikov
La Ferrassie 1 70k Homo neanderthalensis 1909 France R. Capitan and D. Peyrony
Saccopastore 1
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Saccopastore 1 60k Homo neanderthalensis Italy
Shanidar 1 60k - 80k Homo neanderthalensis 1961 Iraq Ralph Solecki
La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 60k Homo neanderthalensis 1908 France A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon
Amud 7
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Amud 7 50k - 60k Homo neanderthalensis Israel

Upper Paleolithic: 50,000 - 10,000 years old

Name Age Species Date
discovered 		Country Discovered by
Sidrón Cave 49k Homo neanderthalensis 1994 Spain
La Quina 5[citation needed] 45k - 60k[23] Homo neanderthalensis France
La Quina 18[citation needed] 45k - 60k[23] Homo neanderthalensis France
Kents Cavern 41k - 45k Homo sapiens 1927 UK
Amud 1
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Amud 1 41k [27] Homo neanderthalensis June 28, 1961 Israel Hisashi Suzuki
Mungo Man 40k - 60k Homo sapiens 1974 Australia
Mount Circeo 1
Image at
Modern Human
Origins 		Mt. Circeo 1 40k - 60k Homo neanderthalensis 1939 Italy Prof. Blanc
Neanderthal 1
images at
Modern Human
Origins 		Neanderthal 1 40k Homo neanderthalensis 1856 Germany Johann Carl Fuhlrott
Denisova hominin (X-Woman) 40k Homo ? 2008 Russia Johannes Krause, et al.
hominin toe bone 40k Homo ? (possible Neanderthal-Denisovan hybrid) 2011 Russia
37k Homo sapiens 2012 Sri Lanka
Hofmeyr Skull 36k Homo sapiens 1952 South Africa
Images of
Peştera
cu Oase 		Peştera cu Oase 36k Homo sapiens 2002 Romania
Red Lady of Paviland 33k Homo sapiens 1823 UK William Buckland
Yamashita-Cho Man 32k Homo sapiens 1962 Japan
Engis 30k-50k [23][28] Homo neanderthalensis 1829 Belgium Philippe-Charles Schmerling
Gibraltar 1 30k-50k [23] Homo neanderthalensis 1848 Gibraltar Captain Edmund Flint
Le Moustier 30k-50k Homo neanderthalensis 1909 France
Denisovan tooth 30k - 50k Homo ? 2000 Russia
Cro-Magnon 1 30k Homo sapiens 1868 France Louis Lartet
NG 6 27k - 53k Homo erectus 1931 Indonesia C. ter Haar and GHR von Koenigswald
Predmosti 3
images at
Modern Human
Origins 		Predmost 3 26k Homo sapiens 1894 Czech Republic K.J. Maska
[1] Lapedo Child 24.5k Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens 1998 Portugal João Zilhão
[2] Eel Point 24k Homo sapiens 1997 UK
LB 1 (Hobbit) 18k Homo floresiensis 2003 Indonesia Peter Brown
Minatogawa 1
images at
Modern Human
Origins 		Minatogawa 1 16k - 18k Homo sapiens 1970 Japan
Tandou[citation needed] 15k Homo sapiens 1967 Australia Duncan Merrilees
[3] [29] Gough's Cave 14.7k Homo sapiens 1927–1968 UK
Iwo Eleru Skull 13k[30] Homo sapiens 1965 Nigeria
Cerro Sota 2
images at
Travels and Archeology in South Chile
 		Cerro Sota 2[31] 11k Homo sapiens 1936 Chile Junius Bird
Wadjak 1[32] 10k - 12k Homo sapiens 1888 Indonesia B.D. van Rietschoten

Holocene

Mesolithic / Neolithic: 10,000 - 5000 years old

Name Age Species Year
discovered 		Country Discovered by
La Brea Woman approx 10k Homo sapiens 1914 United States
Combe Capelle 9.6 k[33] Homo sapiens 1909 France O. Hauser
Cheddar Man 9k 1903 UK
Kow Swamp 1 9k - 13k Homo sapiens 1968 Australia A.G. Thorne
Afalou 13[citation needed] 8k - 12k Homo sapiens 1920 Algeria C. Arambourg
Wadi Halfa 25[citation needed] 8k - 12k Homo sapiens 1963 Sudan G. Armelagos, E. Ewing, D. Greene
Wadi Kubbaniya[citation needed] 8k - 20k Homo sapiens 1982 Egypt Fred Wendorf
Minnesota Woman 7.8 - 8k Homo sapiens 1931 Minnesota, United States Albert Jenks, via construction crew
Lo 4b[citation needed] 6k - 9k Homo sapiens 1965 H. Robbins B.M. Lynch
Tepexpan man 5k - 11k Homo sapiens 1947 Mexico H. de Terra
SDM 16704[citation needed] 4.9k - 11.8 Homo sapiens 1929 United States M.J. Rogers

Abbreviations used in fossil catalog name

See also

Further reading

  • Gibbons, Ann. The First Human: The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestor. Anchor Books (2007). ISBN 978-1-4000-7696-3
  • Hartwig, Walter, ed. (2002. Reprinted 2004). The Primate Fossil Record. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08141-2Template:Inconsistent citations {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) CS1 maint: year (link).
  • Johanson, Donald & Wong, Kate. Lucy's Legacy: The Quest for Human Origins. Three Rivers Press (2009). ISBN 978-0-307-39640-2
  • Jones, Steve; Martin, Robert D.; Pilbeam, David R (Editors). (1994). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human evolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46786-5Template:Inconsistent citations {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: postscript (link) (Note: this book contains very useful, information dense chapters on primate evolution in general, and human evolution in particular, including fossil history).
  • Leakey, Richard & Lewin, Roger. Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes us Human. Little, Brown and Company (1992). ISBN 0-316-90298-5
  • Lewin, Roger. Bones of Contention: Controversies in the Search for Human Origins. Penguin Books (1987). ISBN 0-14-022638-9
  • Morwood, Mike & van Oosterzee, Penny. A New Human: The Startling Discovery and Strange Story of the 'Hobbits' of Flores, Indonesia. Smithsonian Books (2007). ISBN 978-0-06-089908-0
  • Oppenheimer, Stephen. Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World. Constable (2003). ISBN 1-84119-697-5
  • Roberts, Alice. The Incredible Human Journey: The Story of how we Colonised the Planet. Bloomsbury (2009). ISBN 978-0-7475-9839-8
  • Shreeve, James. The Neanderthal Enigma: Solving the Mystery of Modern Human Origins. Viking (1996). ISBN 0-670-86638-5
  • Stringer, Chris. The Origin of Our Species. Allen Lane (2011). ISBN 978-1-84614-140-9
  • Stringer, Chris & Andrews, Peter. The Complete World of Human Evolution. Thames & Hudson (2005). ISBN 0-500-05132-1
  • Stringer, Chris & McKie, Robin. African Exodus: The Origins of Modern Humanity. Jonathan Cape (1996). ISBN 0-224-03771-4
  • van Oosterzee, Penny. The Story of Peking Man. Allen & Unwin (1999). ISBN 1-86508-632-0
  • Walker, Allan & Shipman, Pat. The Wisdom of the Bones: In Search of Human Origins. Weidenfeld and Nicholson (1996). ISBN 0-297-81670-5
  • Wade, Nicholas. Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of our Ancestors. Penguin Press (2006). ISBN 978-0-7156-3658-9
  • Weiss, M.L., & Mann, A.E. (1985). "'Human Biology and Behaviour: An anthropological perspective" (Document). Boston: Little BrownTemplate:Inconsistent citations {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |edition= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |isbn= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: postscript (link) (Note: this book contains very accessible descriptions of human and non-human primates, their evolution, and fossil history).
  • Template:Cite isbn

References

  1. ^ "Prominent Hominid Fossils". Retrieved 2006-08-31.
  2. ^ "Fossil Hominids: Toumai". Talkorigins.org. 2002-07-31. Retrieved 2012-10-15.
  3. ^ "Bar 10200'". Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
  4. ^ Amos, Jonathan (2009-10-01). "Fossil finds extend human story". BBC News.
  5. ^ I. A. N., McDougall; Craig, Feibel (1999). "Numerical age control for the Miocene-Pliocene succession at Lothagam, a hominoid-bearing sequence in the northern Kenya Rift". Journal of the Geological Society. 156: 731–745. doi:10.1144/gsjgs.156.4.0731.
  6. ^ a b c Andrew Hill & Steven Ward (1988). "Origin of the Hominidae: The Record of African Large Hominoid Evolution Between 14 My and 4 My". Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. 31 (59): 49–83. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330310505Template:Inconsistent citations{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  7. ^ Bryan Patterson, Anna K. Behrensmeyer, & William D. Sill (6 June 1970). "Geology and Fauna of a New Pliocene Locality in North-western Kenya". Nature. 226 (5249): 918–921. doi:10.1038/226918a0. PMID 16057594Template:Inconsistent citations{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: postscript (link) Key details from select sources
  8. ^ Ward, Steven; Hill, Andrew. "Pliocene hominid partial mandible from Tabarin, Baringo, Kenya". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 72 (1): 21–37. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330720104.
  9. ^ "Sorry, We Can't Find That Page - Search MSU". Msu.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-15.
  10. ^ "Oldupai". Ntz.info. Retrieved 2012-10-15.
  11. ^ KNM-WT 40000
  12. ^ Smithsonian
  13. ^ http://travelmag.co.uk/?p=1254
  14. ^ Jonathan, Amos (2011-09-08). "African fossils put new spin on human origins story". http://www.sciencemag.org/site/extra/sediba/index.xhtml. BBC News. Retrieved 9 September 2011. {{cite news}}: External link in |work= (help)
  15. ^ Mai, L.L., Owl, M.Y., & Kersting, M.P. (2005), p.286
  16. ^ a b c Meave G. Leakey, Fred Spoor, M. Christopher Dean, Craig S. Feibel, Susan C. Antón, Christopher Kiarie & Louise N. Leakey. 2012. New fossils from Koobi Fora in northern Kenya confirm taxonomic diversity in early Homo. Nature 488, 201–204 (9 August 2012) doi:10.1038/nature11322
  17. ^ Inverted strata
  18. ^ Donald C. Johanson, Blake Edgar (1996). From Lucy to Language. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. p. 158.
  19. ^ Michael Hopkin (March 26, 2008). "Fossil find is oldest European yet". Nature News. doi:10.1038/news.2008.691.
  20. ^ http://archive.archaeology.org/9809/newsbriefs/eritrea.html
  21. ^ By ʻAlī Jāvīd, "World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 2", Page. 17
  22. ^ P. Brown Dali archaic Homo Sapiens University of New England, Australia
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Smith, T. M. (2010). "Dental evidence for ontogenetic differences between modern humans and Neanderthals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (49): 20923–20928. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010906107. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Qafzeh IX
  25. ^ Christopher J. Norton and David R. Braun. Asian paleanthropology: From Africa to China and beyond. New York, NY: Springer. p. 107. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9094-2. ISBN 978-9048190935.
  26. ^ "What does it mean to be human?". Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
  27. ^ "Human evolution: interpreting evidence". Museum of Science, Boston, US. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
  28. ^ Timeline at Bone & Stone
  29. ^ Robin McKie, science editor (2010-06-20). "Bones from a Cheddar Gorge cave show that cannibalism helped Britain's earliest settlers survive the ice age | Science | The Observer". Guardian. Retrieved 2012-10-15. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  30. ^ "Mystery of a West African skull from 13,000 years ago". Natural History Museum, London, UK. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
  31. ^ "Travels and Archeology in South Chile". Cornell University, New York, U.S. Retrieved Auguest 21, 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  32. ^ Storm, Paul; Nelson, Andrew (1992). "The many faces of Wadjak man". Archaeology Oceania. 27 (1): 37–46.
  33. ^ Seidler, Christoph (9 February 2011). "Forscher entzaubern Steinzeitmann". Der Spiegel (in German). Retrieved 2012-04-19.
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