Jump to content

Healthy diet

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Health food restaurant)

Some healthy foods including beans, grains, cauliflower, cantaloupe, pasta, bread, orange, turkey, fish, carrots, turnips, zucchini, snowpeas, string beans, radishes, asparagus, summer squash, lean beef, tomatoes, and potatoes[1]

A healthy diet is a diet that maintains or improves overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients such as protein, micronutrients such as vitamins, and adequate fibre and food energy.[2][3]

A healthy diet may contain fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, and may include little to no ultra-processed foods or sweetened beverages. The requirements for a healthy diet can be met from a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods, although additional sources of vitamin B12 are needed for those following a vegan diet.[4] Various nutrition guides are published by medical and governmental institutions to educate individuals on what they should be eating to be healthy. Nutrition facts labels are also mandatory in some countries to allow consumers to choose between foods based on the components relevant to health.[5][6]

Recommendations

World Health Organization

The World Health Organization (WHO) makes the following five recommendations with respect to both populations and individuals:[7]

  1. Maintain a healthy weight by eating roughly the same number of calories that your body is using.
  2. Limit intake of fats to no more than 30% of total caloric intake, preferring unsaturated fats to saturated fats. Avoid trans fats.
  3. Eat at least 400 grams of fruits and vegetables per day (not counting potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, and other starchy roots). A healthy diet also contains legumes (e.g. lentils, beans), whole grains, and nuts.[8]
  4. Limit the intake of simple sugars to less than 10% of caloric intake (below 5% of calories or 25 grams may be even better).[9]
  5. Limit salt/sodium from all sources and ensure that salt is iodized. Less than 5 grams of salt per day can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.[10]

The WHO has stated that insufficient vegetables and fruit is the cause of 2.8% of deaths worldwide.[10][failed verification]

Other WHO recommendations include:

United States Department of Agriculture

Main article: History of USDA nutrition guides
Main article: MyPlate

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) recommends three healthy patterns of diet, summarized in the table below, for a 2000 kcal diet.[11][12][13] These guidelines are increasingly adopted by various groups and institutions for recipe and meal plan development.[14]

The guidelines emphasize both health and environmental sustainability and a flexible approach. The committee that drafted it wrote: "The major findings regarding sustainable diets were that a diet higher in plant-based foods, such as vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds, and lower in calories and animal-based foods is more health promoting and is associated with less environmental impact than is the current U.S. diet. This pattern of eating can be achieved through a variety of dietary patterns, including the "Healthy U.S.-style Pattern", the "Healthy Vegetarian Pattern" and the "Healthy Mediterranean-style Pattern".[15] Food group amounts are per day, unless noted per week.

The three healthy patterns
Food group/subgroup (units) U.S. style Vegetarian Med-style
Fruits (cup eq) 2 2 2.5
Vegetables (cup eq) 2.5 2.5 2.5
Dark green 1.5/wk 1.5/wk 1.5/wk
Red/orange 5.5/wk 5.5/wk 5.5/wk
Starchy 5/wk 5/wk 5/wk
Legumes 1.5/wk 3/wk 1.5/wk
Others 4/wk 4/wk 4/wk
Grains (oz eq) 6 6.5 6
Whole 3 3.5 3
Refined 3 3 3
Dairy (cup eq) 3 3 2
Protein Foods (oz eq) 5.5 3.5 6.5
Meat (red and processed) 12.5/wk – 12.5/wk
Poultry 10.5/wk – 10.5/wk
Seafood 8/wk – 15/wk
Eggs 3/wk 3/wk 3/wk
Nuts/seeds 4/wk 7/wk 4/wk
Processed Soy (including tofu) 0.5/wk 8/wk 0.5/wk
Oils (grams) 27 27 27
Solid fats limit (grams) 18 21 17
Added sugars limit (grams) 30 36 29

American Heart Association / World Cancer Research Fund / American Institute for Cancer Research

The American Heart Association, World Cancer Research Fund, and American Institute for Cancer Research recommend a diet that consists mostly of unprocessed plant foods, with emphasis on a wide range of whole grains, legumes, and non-starchy vegetables and fruits. This healthy diet includes a wide range of non-starchy vegetables and fruits which provide different colors including red, green, yellow, white, purple, and orange. The recommendations note that tomato cooked with oil, allium vegetables like garlic, and cruciferous vegetables like cauliflower, provide some protection against cancer. This healthy diet is low in energy density, which may protect against weight gain and associated diseases. Finally, limiting consumption of sugary drinks, limiting energy-rich foods, including "fast foods" and red meat, and avoiding processed meats improves health and longevity. Overall, researchers and medical policymakers conclude that this healthy diet can reduce the risk of chronic disease and cancer.[16][17]

It is recommended that children consume 25 grams or less of added sugar (100 calories) per day.[18] Other recommendations include no extra sugars in those under two years old and less than one soft drink per week.[18] As of 2017, decreasing total fat is no longer recommended, but instead, the recommendation to lower risk of cardiovascular disease is to increase consumption of monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats, while decreasing consumption of saturated fats.[19]

Harvard School of Public Health

The Nutrition Source of Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) makes the following dietary recommendations:[20]

  • Eat healthy fats: healthy fats are necessary and beneficial for health.[21] HSPH "recommends the opposite of the low-fat message promoted for decades by the USDA" and "does not set a maximum on the percentage of calories people should get each day from healthy sources of fat."[20] Healthy fats include polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, found in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and fish. Foods containing trans fats are to be avoided, while foods high in saturated fats like red meat, butter, cheese, ice cream, coconut and palm oil negatively impact health and should be limited.[21][22]
  • Eat healthy protein: the majority of protein should come from plant sources when possible: lentils, beans, nuts, seeds, whole grains; avoid processed meats like bacon.[23]
  • Eat mostly vegetables, fruit, and whole grains.[20]
  • Drink water. Consume sugary beverages, juices, and milk only in moderation. Artificially sweetened beverages contribute to weight gain because sweet drinks cause cravings. 100% fruit juice is high in calories. The ideal amount of milk and calcium is not known today.[24]
  • Pay attention to salt intake from commercially prepared foods: most of the dietary salt comes from processed foods, "not from salt added to cooking at home or even from salt added at the table before eating."[25]
  • Vitamins and minerals: must be obtained from food because they are not produced in our body. They are provided by a diet containing healthy fats, healthy protein, vegetables, fruit, milk and whole grains.[26][24]
  • Pay attention to the carbohydrates package: the type of carbohydrates in the diet is more important than the amount of carbohydrates. Good sources for carbohydrates are vegetables, fruits, beans, and whole grains. Avoid sugared sodas, 100% fruit juice, artificially sweetened drinks, and other highly processed food.[24][20]

Other than nutrition, the guide recommends staying active and maintaining a healthy body weight.[20]

Others

David L. Katz, who reviewed the most prevalent popular diets in 2014, noted:

The weight of evidence strongly supports a theme of healthful eating while allowing for variations on that theme. A diet of minimally processed foods close to nature, predominantly plants, is decisively associated with health promotion and disease prevention and is consistent with the salient components of seemingly distinct dietary approaches. Efforts to improve public health through diet are forestalled not for want of knowledge about the optimal feeding of Homo sapiens but for distractions associated with exaggerated claims, and our failure to convert what we reliably know into what we routinely do. Knowledge in this case is not, as of yet, power; would that it were so.[27]

Marion Nestle expresses the mainstream view among scientists who study nutrition:[28]: 10 

The basic principles of good diets are so simple that I can summarize them in just ten words: eat less, move more, eat lots of fruits and vegetables. For additional clarification, a five-word modifier helps: go easy on junk foods. Follow these precepts and you will go a long way toward preventing the major diseases of our overfed society—coronary heart disease, certain cancers, diabetes, stroke, osteoporosis, and a host of others.... These precepts constitute the bottom line of what seem to be the far more complicated dietary recommendations of many health organizations and national and international governments—the forty-one "key recommendations" of the 2005 Dietary Guidelines, for example. ... Although you may feel as though advice about nutrition is constantly changing, the basic ideas behind my four precepts have not changed in half a century. And they leave plenty of room for enjoying the pleasures of food.[29]: 22 

Historically, a healthy diet was defined as a diet comprising more than 55% of carbohydrates, less than 30% of fat and about 15% of proteins.[30] This view is currently shifting towards a more comprehensive framing of dietary needs as a global need of various nutrients with complex interactions, instead of per nutrient type needs.[31]

Specific conditions

Diabetes

A healthy diet in combination with being active can help those with diabetes keep their blood sugar in check.[32] The US CDC advises individuals with diabetes to plan for regular, balanced meals and to include more nonstarchy vegetables, reduce added sugars and refined grains, and focus on whole foods instead of highly processed foods.[33] Generally, people with diabetes and those at risk are encouraged to increase their fiber intake.[34]

Hypertension

A low-sodium diet is beneficial for people with high blood pressure. A 2008 Cochrane review concluded that a long-term (more than four weeks) low-sodium diet lowers blood pressure, both in people with hypertension (high blood pressure) and in those with normal blood pressure.[35]

The DASH diet (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) is a diet promoted by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (part of the NIH, a United States government organization) to control hypertension. A major feature of the plan is limiting intake of sodium,[36] and the diet also generally encourages the consumption of nuts, whole grains, fish, poultry, fruits, and vegetables while lowering the consumption of red meats, sweets, and sugar. It is also "rich in potassium, magnesium, and calcium, as well as protein".

The Mediterranean diet, which includes limiting consumption of red meat and using olive oil in cooking, has also been shown to improve cardiovascular outcomes.[37]

Obesity

Further information: Dieting

Healthy diets in combination with physical exercise can be used by people who are overweight or obese to lose weight, although this approach is not by itself an effective long-term treatment for obesity and is primarily effective for only a short period (up to one year), after which some of the weight is typically regained.[38][39] A meta-analysis found no difference between diet types (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, and low-calorie), with a 2–4 kilograms (4.4–8.8 lb) weight loss.[40] This level of weight loss is by itself insufficient to move a person from an 'obese' body mass index (BMI) category to a 'normal' BMI.

Further information: Gluten-free diet

Gluten, a mixture of proteins found in wheat and related grains including barley, rye, oat, and all their species and hybrids (such as spelt, kamut, and triticale),[41] causes health problems for those with gluten-related disorders, including celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia, dermatitis herpetiformis, and wheat allergy.[42] In these people, the gluten-free diet is the only available treatment.[43][44][45]

Epilepsy

Further information: Ketogenic diet

The ketogenic diet is a treatment to reduce epileptic seizures for adults and children when managed by a health care team.[46]

Research

Further information: Diet and cancer

Preliminary research indicated that a diet high in fruit and vegetables may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease and death, but not cancer.[47] Eating a healthy diet and getting enough exercise can maintain body weight within the normal range and reduce the risk of obesity in most people.[48] A 2021 scientific review of evidence on diets for lowering the risk of atherosclerosis found that:[49]

low consumption of salt and foods of animal origin, and increased intake of plant-based foods—whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts—are linked with reduced atherosclerosis risk. The same applies for the replacement of butter and other animal/tropical fats with olive oil and other unsaturated-fat-rich oil. [...] With regard to meat, new evidence differentiates processed and red meat—both associated with increased CVD risk—from poultry, showing a neutral relationship with CVD for moderate intakes. [...] New data endorse the replacement of most high glycemic index (GI) foods with both whole grain and low GI cereal foods.

Scientific research is also investigating impacts of nutrition on health- and lifespans beyond any specific range of diseases.

This section is transcluded from Life extension#Healthy diet. (edit | history)

Research suggests that increasing adherence to Mediterranean diet patterns is associated with a reduction in total and cause-specific mortality, extending health- and lifespan.[50][51][52][53] Research is identifying the key beneficial components of the Mediterranean diet.[54][55] Studies suggest dietary changes are a factor of national relative rises in life-span.[56] Moreover, not only do the components of diets matter but the total caloric content and eating patterns may also impact health – dietary restriction such as caloric restriction is considered to be potentially healthy to include in eating patterns in various ways in terms of health- and lifespan.[57][58]

Unhealthy diets

An unhealthy diet is a major risk factor for a number of chronic diseases including: high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, abnormal blood lipids, overweight/obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer.[59] The World Health Organization has estimated that 2.7 million deaths each year are attributable to a diet low in fruit and vegetables during the 21st century.[60] Globally, such diets are estimated to cause about 19% of gastrointestinal cancer, 31% of ischaemic heart disease, and 11% of strokes,[6] thus making it one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide,[61] and the 4th leading risk factor for any disease.[62] As an example, the Western pattern diet is "rich in red meat, dairy products, processed and artificially sweetened foods, and salt, with minimal intake of fruits, vegetables, fish, legumes, and whole grains," contrasted by the Mediterranean diet which is associated with less morbidity and mortality.[63]

Dietary patterns that lead to non-communicable diseases generate productivity losses. A true cost accounting (TCA) assessment on the hidden impacts of agrifood systems estimated that unhealthy dietary patterns generate more than USD 9 trillion in health-related hidden costs in 2020, which is 73 percent of the total quantified hidden costs of global agrifood systems (USD 12.7 trillion). Globally, the average productivity losses per person from dietary intake is equivalent to 7 percent of GDP purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2020; low-income countries report the lowest value (4 percent), while other income categories report 7 percent or higher.[64]

Fad diet

Further information: Fad diet

Some publicized diets, often referred to as fad diets, make exaggerated claims of fast weight loss or other health advantages, such as longer life or detoxification without clinical evidence; many fad diets are based on highly restrictive or unusual food choices.[65][66][67] Celebrity endorsements (including celebrity doctors) are frequently associated with such diets, and the individuals who develop and promote these programs often profit considerably.[28]: 11–12 [68]

Public health

Most of the people unable to afford a healthy diet in 2021 lived in southern Asia, and in eastern and western Africa

Consumers are generally aware of the elements of a healthy diet, but find nutrition labels and diet advice in popular media confusing.[69]

Vending machines are criticized for being avenues of entry into schools for junk food promoters, but there is little in the way of regulation and it is difficult for most people to properly analyze the real merits of a company referring to itself as "healthy." The Committee of Advertising Practice in the United Kingdom launched a proposal to limit media advertising for food and soft drink products high in fat, salt, or sugar.[70] The British Heart Foundation released its own government-funded advertisements, labeled "Food4Thought", which were targeted at children and adults to discourage unhealthy habits of consuming junk food.[71]

From a psychological and cultural perspective, a healthier diet may be difficult to achieve for people with poor eating habits.[72] This may be due to tastes acquired in childhood and preferences for sugary, salty, and fatty foods.[73] In 2018, the UK chief medical officer recommended that sugar and salt be taxed to discourage consumption.[74] The UK government 2020 Obesity Strategy encourages healthier choices by restricting point-of-sale promotions of less-healthy foods and drinks.[75]

The effectiveness of population-level health interventions has included food pricing strategies, mass media campaigns and worksite wellness programs.[76] One peso per liter of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) price intervention implemented in Mexico produced a 12% reduction in SSB purchasing.[77] Mass media campaigns in Pakistan and the USA aimed at increasing vegetable and fruit consumption found positive changes in dietary behavior.[77] Reviews of the effectiveness of worksite wellness interventions found evidence linking the programs to weight loss and increased fruit and vegetable consumption.[78]

Other animals

Animals that are kept by humans also benefit from a healthy diet, but the requirements of such diets may be very different from the ideal human diet.[79]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Healthy Food Display: Image Details". NCI Visuals Online. National Cancer Institute. 1 January 2001. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
  2. ^ Lean, Michael E.J. (2015). "Principles of Human Nutrition". Medicine. 43 (2): 61–65. doi:10.1016/j.mpmed.2014.11.009. S2CID 220865321.
  3. ^ World Health Organization, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (2004). Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition (PDF) (2. ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-154612-6.
  4. ^ Melina, Vesanto; Craig, Winston; Levin, Susan (December 2016). "Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 116 (12): 1970–1980. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025. PMID 27886704. S2CID 4984228. Archived from the original on 2 December 2016.
  5. ^ "Food information to consumers – legislation". EU. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
  6. ^ a b "WHO | Promoting fruit and vegetable consumption around the world" (PDF). WHO.
  7. ^ "WHO | Diet". WHO.
  8. ^ "Healthy Diet – WHO".
  9. ^ "WHO guideline: sugar consumption recommendation". World Health Organization. Retrieved 6 January 2018.
  10. ^ a b c "WHO – Unhealthy diet". who.int.
  11. ^ Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. "Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee Archived 2018-08-27 at the Wayback Machine." Washington (DC): USDA and US Department of Health and Human Services (2015).
  12. ^ Jensen, MD; Ryan, DH; Apovian, CM; Ard, JD; Comuzzie, AG; Donato, KA; Hu, FB; Hubbard, VS; Jakicic, JM; Kushner, RF; Loria, CM; Millen, BE; Nonas, CA; Pi-Sunyer, FX; Stevens, J; Stevens, VJ; Wadden, TA; Wolfe, BM; Yanovski, SZ; Jordan, HS; Kendall, KA; Lux, LJ; Mentor-Marcel, R; Morgan, LC; Trisolini, MG; Wnek, J; Anderson, JL; Halperin, JL; Albert, NM; Bozkurt, B; Brindis, RG; Curtis, LH; DeMets, D; Hochman, JS; Kovacs, RJ; Ohman, EM; Pressler, SJ; Sellke, FW; Shen, WK; Smith SC, Jr; Tomaselli, GF; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice, Guidelines.; Obesity, Society. (24 June 2014). "2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society". Circulation (Professional society guideline). 129 (25 Suppl 2): S102-38. doi:10.1161/01.cir.0000437739.71477.ee. PMC 5819889. PMID 24222017.
  13. ^ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2020-2025 and Online Materials | Dietary Guidelines for Americans". www.dietaryguidelines.gov. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  14. ^ "Our Nutrition Guidelines And Food Philosophy Healthy Recipes 101". Healthy Recipes 101. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  15. ^ "App. E-3.7: Developing Vegetarian and Mediterranean-style Food Patterns - 2015 Advisory Report - health.gov". health.gov. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
  16. ^ World Cancer Research Fund (1 January 2007). Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective (PDF). American Institute for Cancer Research. ISBN 978-0-9722522-2-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2016.
  17. ^ "American Cancer Society Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for Cancer Prevention" (PDF). Last Revised: 1 November 2012.
  18. ^ a b Vos, Miriam B.; Kaar, Jill L.; Welsh, Jean A.; Van Horn, Linda V.; Feig, Daniel I.; Anderson, Cheryl A.M.; Patel, Mahesh J.; Cruz Munos, Jessica; Krebs, Nancy F.; Xanthakos, Stavra A.; Johnson, Rachel K. (22 August 2016). "Added Sugars and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Children". Circulation. 135 (19): e1017–e1034. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000439. PMC 5365373. PMID 27550974.
  19. ^ Sacks, Frank M.; Lichtenstein, Alice H.; Wu, Jason H.Y.; Appel, Lawrence J.; Creager, Mark A.; Kris-Etherton, Penny M.; Miller, Michael; Rimm, Eric B.; Rudel, Lawrence L.; Robinson, Jennifer G.; Stone, Neil J.; Van Horn, Linda V. (15 June 2017). "Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 136 (3): e1–e23. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510. PMID 28620111. S2CID 367602.
  20. ^ a b c d e "What Should I Eat?". The Nutrition Source. Harvard School of Public Health. 18 September 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  21. ^ a b "Fats and Cholesterol". The Nutrition Source. The President and Fellows of Harvard College. 18 September 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  22. ^ "Coconut Oil". The Nutrition Source. The President and Fellows of Harvard College. 24 July 2018. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  23. ^ "Protein". The Nutrition Source. The President and Fellows of Harvard College. 18 September 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  24. ^ a b c "Drinks to Consume in Moderation". The Nutrition Source. The President and Fellows of Harvard College. 4 September 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  25. ^ "Salt and Sodium". The Nutrition Source. The President and Fellows of Harvard College. 18 July 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  26. ^ "Vitamins and Minerals". The Nutrition Source. The President and Fellows of Harvard College. 18 September 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
  27. ^ Katz DL, Meller S (2014). "Can we say what diet is best for health?". Annu Rev Public Health. 35: 83–103. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182351. PMID 24641555.
  28. ^ a b Fitzgerald M (2014). Diet Cults: The Surprising Fallacy at the Core of Nutrition Fads and a Guide to Healthy Eating for the Rest of US. Pegasus Books. ISBN 978-1-60598-560-2.
  29. ^ Nestle, Marion (2006). What to Eat. New York: North Point Press (Farrar, Straus and Giroux). pp. 611. ISBN 978-0-86547-738-4.
  30. ^ Matarese, LE; Pories, WJ (December 2014). "Adult weight loss diets: metabolic effects and outcomes". Nutrition in Clinical Practice (Review). 29 (6): 759–67. doi:10.1177/0884533614550251. PMID 25293593.
  31. ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2017). "2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans - health.gov". health.gov (National guideline). USDA and HHS. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  32. ^ "Diabetes Diet, Eating, & Physical Activity - NIDDK". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  33. ^ CDC (19 April 2023). "Meal Planning". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
  34. ^ Evert, Alison B.; Dennison, Michelle; Gardner, Christopher D.; et al. (May 2019). "Nutrition Therapy for Adults With Diabetes or Prediabetes: A Consensus Report". Diabetes Care. 42 (5): 731–754. doi:10.2337/dci19-0014. ISSN 1935-5548. PMC 7011201. PMID 31000505.
  35. ^ He, FJ; MacGregor, GA (2004). MacGregor, Graham A (ed.). "Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 1 (3): CD004937. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004937. PMID 15266549.
  36. ^ "Your Guide To Lowering Your Blood Pressure With DASH" (PDF). Retrieved 8 June 2009.
  37. ^ Walker C, Reamy BV (April 2009). "Diets for cardiovascular disease prevention: what is the evidence?". Am Fam Physician. 79 (7): 571–7. PMID 19378874.
  38. ^ Thom, G; Lean, M (May 2017). "Is There an Optimal Diet for Weight Management and Metabolic Health?" (PDF). Gastroenterology (Review). 152 (7): 1739–1751. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.056. PMID 28214525.
  39. ^ Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults. Bethesda: US National Institutes of Health. 1998.
  40. ^ Strychar I (January 2006). "Diet in the management of weight loss". CMAJ. 174 (1): 56–63. doi:10.1503/cmaj.045037. PMC 1319349. PMID 16389240.
  41. ^ Biesiekierski, JR (2017). "What is gluten?". J Gastroenterol Hepatol (Review). 32 (Suppl 1): 78–81. doi:10.1111/jgh.13703. PMID 28244676. Similar proteins to the gliadin found in wheat exist as secalin in rye, hordein in barley, and avenins in oats and are collectively referred to as "gluten." Derivatives of these grains such as triticale and malt and other ancient wheat varieties such as spelt and kamut also contain gluten. The gluten found in all of these grains has been identified as the component capable of triggering the immune-mediated disorder, coeliac disease.Open access icon
  42. ^ Ludvigsson JF, Leffler DA, Bai JC, et al. (January 2013). "The Oslo definitions for coeliac disease and related terms". Gut. 62 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301346. PMC 3440559. PMID 22345659.
  43. ^ Mulder CJ, van Wanrooij RL, Bakker SF, Wierdsma N, Bouma G (2013). "Gluten-free diet in gluten-related disorders". Dig. Dis. (Review). 31 (1): 57–62. doi:10.1159/000347180. PMID 23797124. S2CID 14124370. The only treatment for CD, dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) and gluten ataxia is lifelong adherence to a GFD.
  44. ^ Hischenhuber C, Crevel R, Jarry B, et al. (1 March 2006). "Review article: safe amounts of gluten for patients with wheat allergy or coeliac disease". Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 23 (5): 559–75. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02768.x. PMID 16480395. S2CID 9970042. For both wheat allergy and coeliac disease the dietary avoidance of wheat and other gluten-containing cereals is the only effective treatment.
  45. ^ Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE (June 2015). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders". Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 29 (3): 477–91. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006. PMID 26060112. A recently proposed approach to NCGS diagnosis is an objective improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms and extra-intestinal manifestations assessed through a rating scale before and after GFD. Although a standardized symptom rating scale is not yet applied worldwide, a recent study indicated that a decrease of the global symptom score higher than 50% after GFD can be regarded as confirmatory of NCGS (Table 1) [53]. (…) After the confirmation of NCGS diagnosis, according to the previously mentioned work-up, patients are advized to start with a GFD [49].
  46. ^ "What is the Ketogenic Diet". www.eatright.org. Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. April 2019. Archived from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  47. ^ Wang, X; Ouyang, Y; Liu, J; et al. (29 July 2014). "Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 349: g4490. doi:10.1136/bmj.g4490. PMC 4115152. PMID 25073782.
  48. ^ Afshin, A; Forouzanfar, MH; Reitsma, MB; et al. (6 July 2017). "Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity in 195 Countries over 25 Years". The New England Journal of Medicine. 377 (1): 13–27. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1614362. PMC 5477817. PMID 28604169.
  49. ^ Riccardi, Gabriele; Giosuè, Annalisa; Calabrese, Ilaria; Vaccaro, Olga (6 July 2021). "Dietary recommendations for prevention of atherosclerosis". Cardiovascular Research. 118 (5): 1188–1204. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvab173. PMID 34229346.
  50. ^ Dominguez LJ, Di Bella G, Veronese N, Barbagallo M (June 2021). "Impact of Mediterranean Diet on Chronic Non-Communicable Diseases and Longevity". Nutrients. 13 (6): 2028. doi:10.3390/nu13062028. PMC 8231595. PMID 34204683.
  51. ^ Eleftheriou D, Benetou V, Trichopoulou A, La Vecchia C, Bamia C (November 2018). "Mediterranean diet and its components in relation to all-cause mortality: meta-analysis". The British Journal of Nutrition. 120 (10): 1081–1097. doi:10.1017/S0007114518002593. hdl:2434/612956. PMID 30401007. S2CID 53226475.
  52. ^ Ekmekcioglu C (2020). "Nutrition and longevity - From mechanisms to uncertainties". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 60 (18): 3063–3082. doi:10.1080/10408398.2019.1676698. PMID 31631676. S2CID 204815279.
  53. ^ "What Do We Know About Healthy Aging?". National Institute on Aging. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  54. ^ Hidalgo-Mora JJ, García-Vigara A, Sánchez-Sánchez ML, García-Pérez MÁ, Tarín J, Cano A (February 2020). "The Mediterranean diet: A historical perspective on food for health". Maturitas. 132: 65–69. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2019.12.002. PMID 31883665. S2CID 209510802.
  55. ^ Vasto S, Barera A, Rizzo C, Di Carlo M, Caruso C, Panotopoulos G (2014). "Mediterranean diet and longevity: an example of nutraceuticals?". Current Vascular Pharmacology. 12 (5): 735–738. doi:10.2174/1570161111666131219111818. PMID 24350926.
  56. ^ Tsugane S (June 2021). "Why has Japan become the world's most long-lived country: insights from a food and nutrition perspective". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 75 (6): 921–928. doi:10.1038/s41430-020-0677-5. PMC 8189904. PMID 32661353.
  57. ^ Green, Cara L.; Lamming, Dudley W.; Fontana, Luigi (13 September 2021). "Molecular mechanisms of dietary restriction promoting health and longevity". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 23 (1): 56–73. doi:10.1038/s41580-021-00411-4. ISSN 1471-0080. PMC 8692439. PMID 34518687. S2CID 237505615.
  58. ^ Wilson, Kenneth A.; Chamoli, Manish; Hilsabeck, Tyler A.; et al. (22 September 2021). "Evaluating the beneficial effects of dietary restrictions: A framework for precision nutrigeroscience". Cell Metabolism. 33 (11): 2142–2173. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2021.08.018. ISSN 1550-4131. PMC 8845500. PMID 34555343.
  59. ^ "Diet and physical activity: a public health priority". World Health Organization. 2021. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  60. ^ "WHO and FAO announce global initiative to promote consumption of fruit and vegetables". World Health Organization. 2003. Archived from the original on 25 August 2004. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  61. ^ Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ (May 2006). "Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data". Lancet. 367 (9524): 1747–57. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68770-9. PMID 16731270. S2CID 22609505.
  62. ^ Hebden, L; O'Leary, F; Rangan, A; Singgih Lie, E; Hirani, V; Allman-Farinelli, M (13 August 2017). "Fruit consumption and adiposity status in adults: A systematic review of current evidence". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 57 (12): 2526–2540. doi:10.1080/10408398.2015.1012290. PMID 26115001. S2CID 28000503.
  63. ^ Bloomfield, HE; Kane, R; Koeller, E; Greer, N; MacDonald, R; Wilt, T (November 2015). "Benefits and Harms of the Mediterranean Diet Compared to Other Diets" (PDF). VA Evidence-based Synthesis Program Reports. PMID 27559560.
  64. ^ In Brief to The State of Food and Agriculture 2023 (Report). FAO. 6 November 2023. doi:10.4060/cc7937en.
  65. ^ Hart, Katherine (2018). "4.6 Fad diets and fasting for weight loss in obesity.". In Hankey, Catherine (ed.). Advanced nutrition and dietetics in obesity. Wiley. pp. 177–182. ISBN 978-0-470-67076-7.
  66. ^ Hankey, Catherine (23 November 2017). Advanced Nutrition and Dietetics in Obesity. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 179–181. ISBN 978-1-118-85797-7.
  67. ^ Williams, William F. (2 December 2013). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy. Routledge. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-1-135-95522-9.
  68. ^ Tina Gianoulis, "Dieting" in the St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture Ed. Thomas Riggs. Vol. 2. 2nd ed. Detroit: St. James Press, 2013. p106-108. ISBN 978-1-55862-847-2
  69. ^ de Ridder, D; Kroese, F; Evers, C; Adriaanse, M; Gillebaart, M (August 2017). "Healthy diet: Health impact, prevalence, correlates, and interventions". Psychology & Health. 32 (8): 907–941. doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1316849. hdl:1874/356507. PMID 28447854.
  70. ^ "Launch of public consultation on new food ad rules". Committee of Advertising Practice. 2016. Archived from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
  71. ^ "British Heart Foundation launches Food4Thought campaign". British Cardiovascular Society. 22 September 2006. Retrieved 16 August 2016.
  72. ^ "Told to Eat Its Vegetables, America Orders Fries" article by Kim Severson in The New York Times 24 September 2010, accessed 25 September 2010
  73. ^ James WP (2008). "The fundamental drivers of the obesity epidemic". Obesity Research. 9 Suppl 1 (Mar, 9 Suppl 1:6–13): 6–13. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00432.x. PMID 18307693. S2CID 19894128.
  74. ^ Sarah Boseley (21 December 2018). "Chief medic calls for food taxes to cut salt and sugar intake". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
  75. ^ Jenneson, V.; Greenwood, D.; Clarke, G.; Hancock, N.; Cade, J.; Morris, M. (27 October 2020). "Restricting Retail Food Promotions: implementation challenges could limit policy success". eprints.whiterose.ac.uk. doi:10.5518/100/52. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  76. ^ Afshin, Ashkan; Sur, Patrick John; Fay, Kairsten A.; et al. (11 May 2019). "Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017". The Lancet. 393 (10184): 1958–1972. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30041-8. ISSN 0140-6736. PMC 6899507. PMID 30954305.
  77. ^ a b Afshin, Ashkan; Penalvo, Jose; Del Gobbo, Liana; et al. (14 September 2015). "CVD Prevention Through Policy: a Review of Mass Media, Food/Menu Labeling, Taxation/Subsidies, Built Environment, School Procurement, Worksite Wellness, and Marketing Standards to Improve Diet". Current Cardiology Reports. 17 (11): 98. doi:10.1007/s11886-015-0658-9. ISSN 1534-3170. PMC 4569662. PMID 26370554.
  78. ^ Gudzune, Kimberly; Hutfless, Susan; Maruthur, Nisa; Wilson, Renee; Segal, Jodi (1 October 2013). "Strategies to prevent weight gain in workplace and college settings: A systematic review". Preventive Medicine. 57 (4): 268–277. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2013.03.004. ISSN 0091-7435. PMID 23523689.
  79. ^ "Heathlthy and Balanced Diet for Dogs". RSPCA. 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
Retrieved from "http://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Healthy_diet&oldid=1245465179"