Jump to content

Anatolia

Edit links
Coordinates: 39°N 35°E / 39°N 35°E / 39; 35
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Geography of Anatolia)
For other uses, see Anatolia (disambiguation).
"Asia Minor" redirects here. For other uses, see Asia Minor (disambiguation).

Anatolia
Asia Minor
Anadolu (Turkish)
Satellite imagery centred on Anatolia, which accounts for the bulk of modern-day Turkey
Map of Anatolia (dark green), which according to one definition is delineated by an imprecise line from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea.[1] According to another definition, it is coterminous with the Asian part of Turkey.[2]
Etymology"The East" (from Greek: Ἀνατολή, Anatolḗ)
Geography
LocationWest Asia
Coordinates39°N 35°E / 39°N 35°E / 39; 35
TypePeninsula
Area537,886 km2 (207,679 sq mi)[3]
Capital and largest cityAnkara (pop. 5,803,482)
Demographics
DemonymAnatolian
Languages
Others:
Ethnic groups
Additional information
Time zone

Anatolia (Turkish: Anadolu), also known as Asia Minor,[a] is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean Sea to the west, the Turkish Straits and the Sea of Marmara to the northwest, and the Black Sea to the north. The eastern and southeastern limits have been expanded either to the entirety of Asiatic Turkey[2] or to an imprecise line from the Black Sea to the Gulf of Alexandretta.[1] Topographically, the Sea of Marmara connects the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, and separates Anatolia from Thrace in Southeast Europe.

During the Neolithic, Anatolia was an early centre for the development of farming after it originated in the adjacent Fertile Crescent. Beginning around 9,000 years ago, there was a major migration of Anatolian Neolithic Farmers into Europe, with their descendants coming to dominate the continent as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles.

The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia, who were neither Indo-European nor Semitic, were gradually absorbed by the incoming Indo-European Anatolian peoples, who spoke the now-extinct Anatolian languages. The major Anatolian languages included Hittite, Luwian, and Lydian; other local languages, albeit poorly attested, included Phrygian and Mysian. The Hurro-Urartian languages were spoken throughout Mitanni in the southeast, while Galatian, a Celtic language, was spoken throughout Galatia in the central peninsula. Among the other peoples who established a significant presence in ancient Anatolia were the Galatians, the Hurrians, the Assyrians, the Armenians, the Hattians, and the Cimmerians, as well as some of the ancient Greek tribes, including the Ionians, the Dorians, and the Aeolians. In the era of classical antiquity (see Classical Anatolia), the Anatolian languages were largely replaced by the Greek language, which came to further dominate the region during the Hellenistic period and the Roman period.

The Byzantine period saw the decline of Greek influence throughout the peninsula as the Byzantine–Seljuk wars enabled the incoming Seljuk Turks to establish a foothold in the region. Thus, the process of Anatolia's Turkification began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century and continued under the Ottoman Empire until the early 20th century, when the Ottoman dynasty collapsed in the aftermath of World War I. Between 1894 and 1924, millions of non-Turkic peoples and Christians were suppressed and removed by the Ottoman Turkish authorities from the bulk of the area of modern-day Turkey. Nonetheless, a variety of non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by ethnic minorities in Anatolia today, including Arabic, Kurdish, Neo-Aramaic, Armenian, the North Caucasian languages, Laz, Georgian, and Greek.

Geography of Anatolia

[edit]
Main article: Geography of Turkey
Europe during the Last Glacial Maximum, c. 20,000 years ago. Anatolia was connected to the European mainland until c. 5600 BCE,[7][8][9] when the melting ice sheets caused the sea level in the Mediterranean to rise around 120 m (390 ft),[8][9] triggering the formation of the Turkish Straits.[7][8][9] As a result, two former lakes (the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea)[7] were connected to the Mediterranean Sea, which separated Anatolia from Europe.

Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea,[10] coterminous with the Anatolian Plateau. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary.[1] Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia.[11] To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria and the Mesopotamian plain.[11] The peninsula is connected to Europe by 4 bridges and 2 underground tunnels running across and beneath the Dardanelles and the Bosporus.

The highest mountain within the definition of Anatolia which consists of the entire Asian part of Turkey is Mount Ararat (Turkish: Ağrı).[12] The highest mountain found within the peninsula is Mount Kaçkar situated at the northeastern fringe.[13] The highest mountain entirely situated inside the region is Mount Erciyes.[14] The Sakarya, and Kızılırmak rivers are the largest rivers found entirely within the peninusla. The largest lake within Anatolia is the endorheic and hypersaline lake Lake Tuz with an area of 1,600 km2..

Etymology

[edit]

The English-language name Anatolia derives from the Greek Ἀνατολή (Anatolḗ) meaning "the East" and designating (from a Greek point of view) eastern regions in general. The Greek word refers to the direction where the sun rises, coming from ἀνατέλλω anatello '(Ι) rise up', comparable to terms in other languages such as "levant" from Latin levo 'to rise', "orient" from Latin orior 'to arise, to originate', Hebrew מִזְרָח mizraḥ 'east' from זָרַח zaraḥ 'to rise, to shine', Aramaic מִדְנָח midnaḥ from דְּנַח denaḥ 'to rise, to shine'.[15][16]

The use of Anatolian designations has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies situated along the eastern coasts of the Aegean Sea, but also encompassing eastern regions in general. Such use of Anatolian designations was employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305), who created the Diocese of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern Diocese, but completely unrelated to the regions of Asia Minor. In their widest territorial scope, Anatolian designations were employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Constantine I (306–337), who created the Praetorian prefecture of the East, known in Greek as the Eastern Prefecture, encompassing all eastern regions of the Late Roman Empire and spanning from Thrace to Egypt.

Only after the loss of other eastern regions during the 7th century and the reduction of Byzantine eastern domains to Asia Minor, that region became the only remaining part of the Byzantine East, and thus commonly referred to (in Greek) as the Eastern part of the Empire. At the same time, the Anatolic Theme (Ἀνατολικὸν θέμα / "the Eastern theme") was created, as a province (theme) covering the western and central parts of Turkey's present-day Central Anatolia Region, centered around Iconium, but ruled from the city of Amorium.[17][18]

The Latinized form "Anatolia", with its -ia ending, is probably a Medieval Latin innovation.[16] The modern Turkish form Anadolu derives directly from the Greek name Aνατολή (Anatolḗ). The Russian male name Anatoly, the French Anatole and plain Anatol, all stemming from saints Anatolius of Laodicea (d. 283) and Anatolius of Constantinople (d. 458; the first Patriarch of Constantinople), share the same linguistic origin.

Names

[edit]
Further information: Place name changes in Turkey

The oldest known name for any region within Anatolia is related to its central area, known as the "Land of Hatti" – a designation that was initially used for the land of ancient Hattians, but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancient Hittites.[19]

The first recorded name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula, though not particularly popular at the time, was Ἀσία (Asía),[20] perhaps from an Akkadian expression for the "sunrise" or possibly echoing the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia.[citation needed] The Romans used it as the name of their province, comprising the west of the peninsula plus the nearby Aegean Islands. As the name "Asia" broadened its scope to apply to the vaster region east of the Mediterranean, some Greeks in Late Antiquity came to use the name Asia Minor (Μικρὰ Ἀσία, Mikrà Asía), meaning "Lesser Asia" to refer to present-day Anatolia, whereas the administration of the Empire preferred the description Ἀνατολή (Anatolḗ; lit. 'the East').

The endonym Ῥωμανία (Rōmanía "the land of the Romans, i.e. the Eastern Roman Empire") was understood as another name for the province by the invading Seljuq Turks, who founded a Sultanate of Rûm in 1077. Thus (land of the) Rûm became another name for Anatolia. By the 12th century Europeans had started referring to Anatolia as Turchia.[21]

During the era of the Ottoman Empire, many mapmakers referred to the mountainous plateau in eastern Anatolia as Armenia. Other contemporary sources called the same area Kurdistan.[22] Geographers have used East Anatolian plateau, Armenian plateau and the Iranian plateau to refer to the region; the former two largely overlap.[23] While a standard definition of Anatolia refers to the entire Asian side of Turkey, according to archaeologist Lori Khatchadourian, this difference in terminology "primarily result[s] from the shifting political fortunes and cultural trajectories of the region since the nineteenth century".[23]

Turkey's First Geography Congress in 1941 created two geographical regions of Turkey to the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line, the Eastern Anatolia Region and the Southeastern Anatolia Region,[24] the former largely corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highlands, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamian plain. According to Richard Hovannisian, this changing of toponyms was "necessary to obscure all evidence" of the Armenian presence as part of the policy of Armenian genocide denial embarked upon by the newly established Turkish government and what Hovannisian calls its "foreign collaborators".[25]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Anatolia

Prehistoric Anatolia

[edit]
The henges in Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC.
Main article: Prehistory of Anatolia

Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic.[26] Neolithic settlements include Çatalhöyük, Çayönü, Nevali Cori, Aşıklı Höyük, Boncuklu Höyük, Hacilar, Göbekli Tepe, Norşuntepe, Köşk Höyük, and Yumuktepe. Çatalhöyük (7.000 BCE) is considered the most advanced of these.[27] Recent advances in archaeogenetics have confirmed that the spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe was strongly correlated with the migration of early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago, and was not just a cultural exchange.[28] Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived most of their ancestry from local Anatolian hunter-gatherers, suggesting that agriculture was adopted in site by these hunter-gatherers and not spread by demic diffusion into the region.[29] Anatolian derived Neolithic Farmers would subsequently spread across Europe, as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles,[30][31] as well as to the Maghreb.[32] Most modern Europeans derive a significant part of their ancestry from these Neolithic Anatolian farmers.[33]

Neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the earliest attested branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BCE.[34][35]

Ancient Anatolia

[edit]
Main articles: List of ancient kingdoms of Anatolia and Ancient regions of Anatolia

The earliest historical data related to Anatolia appear during the Bronze Age and continue throughout the Iron Age. The most ancient period in the history of Anatolia spans from the emergence of ancient Hattians, up to the conquest of Anatolia by the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE.

Hattians and Hurrians

[edit]
Main articles: Hattians and Hurrians

The earliest historically attested populations of Anatolia were the Hattians in central Anatolia, and Hurrians further to the east. The Hattians were an indigenous people, whose main center was the city of Hattush. Affiliation of Hattian language remains unclear, while Hurrian language belongs to a distinctive family of Hurro-Urartian languages. All of those languages are extinct; relationships with indigenous languages of the Caucasus have been proposed,[36] but are not generally accepted. The region became famous for exporting raw materials. Organized trade between Anatolia and Mesopotamia started to emerge during the period of the Akkadian Empire, and was continued and intensified during the period of the Old Assyrian Empire, between the 21st and the 18th centuries BCE. Assyrian traders were bringing tin and textiles in exchange for copper, silver or gold. Cuneiform records, dated c. 20th century BCE, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, use an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.[37][38][39]

Hittite Anatolia (18th–12th century BCE)

[edit]
Main article: Hittites
The Sphinx Gate in Hattusa

Unlike the Akkadians and Assyrians, whose Anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands in Mesopotamia, the Hittites were centered at Hattusa (modern Boğazkale) in north-central Anatolia by the 17th century BCE. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, or nesili (the language of Nesa) in Hittite. The Hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew in Anatolia, in addition to the arrival of Indo-European languages. Attested for the first time in the Assyrian tablets of Nesa around 2000 BCE, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BCE, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites (along with the other Indo-European ancient Anatolians) were themselves relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia from the north. However, they did not necessarily displace the population genetically; they assimilated into the former peoples' culture, preserving the Hittite language.

The Hittites adopted the Mesopotamian cuneiform script. In the Late Bronze Age, Hittite New Kingdom (c. 1650 BCE) was founded, becoming an empire in the 14th century BCE after the conquest of Kizzuwatna in the south-east and the defeat of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. The empire reached its height in the 13th century BCE, controlling much of Asia Minor, northwestern Syria, and northwest upper Mesopotamia. However, the Hittite advance toward the Black Sea coast was halted by the semi-nomadic pastoralist and tribal Kaskians, a non-Indo-European people who had earlier displaced the Palaic-speaking Indo-Europeans.[40] Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires of Egypt, Assyria and the Mitanni.[41]

The Ancient Egyptians eventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire.[41] The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in Syria. The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite (and Hurrian) territory in these regions.[42]

Post-Hittite Anatolia (12th–6th century BCE)

[edit]
The Theatre at Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) was built in the 4th century BC by Mausolus, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[43][44]
The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117.[45] The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.[46]

After 1180 BCE, during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Hittite Empire disintegrated into several independent Syro-Hittite states, subsequent to losing much territory to the Middle Assyrian Empire and being finally overrun by the Phrygians, another Indo-European people who are believed to have migrated from the Balkans. The Phrygian expansion into southeast Anatolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who controlled that region.[42]

Luwians

Another Indo-European people, the Luwians, rose to prominence in central and western Anatolia c. 2000 BCE. Their language belonged to the same linguistic branch as Hittite.[47] The general consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian was spoken across a large area of western Anatolia, including (possibly) Wilusa (Troy), the Seha River Land (to be identified with the Hermos and/or Kaikos valley), and the kingdom of Mira-Kuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander valley.[48] From the 9th century BCE, Luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such as Lydia, Caria, and Lycia, all of which had Hellenic influence.

Arameans

Arameans encroached over the borders of south-central Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Hittite empire, and some of the Syro-Hittite states in this region became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans. These became known as Syro-Hittite states.

Neo-Assyrian Empire
Fairy chimneys in Cappadocia

From the 10th to late 7th centuries BCE, much of Anatolia (particularly the southeastern regions) fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, including all of the Syro-Hittite states, Tabal, Commagene, the Cimmerians and Scythians, and swathes of Cappadocia.

The Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack by Medes, Persians, Scythians and their own Babylonian relations. The last Assyrian city to fall was Harran in southeast Anatolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king of Babylon, the Assyrian Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar. Much of the region then fell to the short-lived Iran-based Median Empire, with the Babylonians and Scythians briefly appropriating some territory.

Cimmerian and Scythian invasions

From the late 8th century BCE, a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatolia: the Cimmerians and Scythians. The Cimmerians overran Phrygia and the Scythians threatened to do the same to Urartu and Lydia, before both were finally checked by the Assyrians.

Early Greek presence
The Sebasteion (left) and Tetrapylon (right) in Aphrodisias of Caria, which was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site List in 2017.

The north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of the Achaean/Mycenaean culture from the 20th century BCE, related to the Greeks of southeastern Europe and the Aegean.[49] Beginning with the Bronze Age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the west coast of Anatolia was settled by Ionian Greeks, usurping the area of the related but earlier Mycenaean Greeks. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek city-states were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic philosophy).[49]

Classical Anatolia

[edit]
Main article: Classical Anatolia

In Classical antiquity, Anatolia was described by the Ancient Greek historian Herodotus and later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture, language, and religious practices.[50] The northern regions included Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus; to the west were Mysia, Lydia, and Caria; and Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia belonged to the southern shore. There were also several inland regions: Phrygia, Cappadocia, Pisidia, and Galatia.[50] Languages spoken included the late surviving Anatolic languages, Isaurian,[51] and Pisidian, Greek in western and coastal regions, Phrygian spoken until the 7th century CE,[52] local variants of Thracian in the northwest, the Galatian variant of Gaulish in Galatia until the 6th century CE,[53][54][55] Cappadocian in the homonymous region,[56] Armenian in the east, and Kartvelian languages in the northeast.

Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted coinage (as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in Mesopotamia at a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BCE in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the Greek and Roman eras.[57][58]

During the 6th century BCE, all of Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Persians having usurped the Medes as the dominant dynasty of Persia. In 499 BCE, the Ionian city-states on the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule. The Ionian Revolt, as it became known, though quelled, initiated the Greco-Persian Wars, which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BCE, and the Ionian cities regained their independence. By the Peace of Antalcidas (387 BCE), which ended the Corinthian War, Persia regained control over Ionia.[59][60]

In 334 BCE, the Macedonian Greek king Alexander the Great conquered the Anatolian peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire.[61] Alexander's conquest opened up the interior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence.

Sanctuary of the Kings of Commagene on Mount Nemrut (1st century BCE)

Following the death of Alexander the Great and the subsequent breakup of the Macedonian Empire, Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the Attalids of Pergamum and the Seleucids, the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A period of peaceful Hellenization followed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BCE. In 133 BCE the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic; western and central Anatolia came under Roman control, but Hellenistic culture remained predominant.

Mithridates VI Eupator, ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus in northern Anatolia, waged war against the Roman Republic in the year 88 BCE in order to halt the advance of Roman hegemony in the Aegean Sea region. Mithridates VI sought to dominate Asia Minor and the Black Sea region, waging several hard-fought but ultimately unsuccessful wars (the Mithridatic Wars) to break Roman dominion over Asia and the Hellenic world.[62] He has been called the greatest ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus.[63] Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by Pompey, brought all of Anatolia under Roman control, except for the southeastern frontier with the Parthian Empire, which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of military conflicts that culminated in the Roman–Parthian Wars (54 BCE – 217 CE).

Early Christian period

[edit]
Main articles: Christianity as the Roman state religion and Spread of Christianity
Further information: Christianity in late antiquity and Crisis of the Third Century
  Roman Empire in 117 CE at its greatest extent, at the time of Trajan's death.
  vassal states[64]
The Seven churches of Asia

After the first division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia became part of the Eastern Roman Empire, otherwise known as the Byzantine Empire or Byzantium.[65] In the 1st century CE, Anatolia became one of the first places where Christianity spread, so that by the 4th century CE, western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking.[65]

Byzantine Anatolia was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated places in the Later Roman Empire. Anatolia's wealth grew during the 4th and 5th centuries thanks, in part, to the Pilgrim's Road that ran through the peninsula. Literary evidence about the rural landscape stems from the Christian hagiographies of the 6th-century Nicholas of Sion and 7th-century Theodore of Sykeon. Large and prosperous urban centers of Byzantine Anatolia included Assos, Ephesus, Miletus, Nicaea, Pergamum, Priene, Sardis, and Aphrodisias.[65]

From the mid-5th century onwards, urbanism was affected negatively and began to decline, while the rural areas reached unprecedented levels of prosperity in the region.[65] Historians and scholars continue to debate the cause of the urban decline in Byzantine Anatolia between the 6th and 7th centuries,[65] variously attributing it to the Plague of Justinian (541), the Byzantine–Sasanian War (602–628), and the Arab invasion of the Levant (634–638).[66]

Medieval period

[edit]
Further information: Byzantine Anatolia
See also: List of states in late medieval Anatolia
Byzantine Anatolia and the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in the mid-9th century

In the 10 years following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim.[67] The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this period marks the start of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking (although ethnic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians remained numerous and retained Christianity and their native languages). In the following century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.[68]

Settlements and regions affected during the first wave of Turkish invasions in Asia Minor (11th–13th century)

In 1255, the Mongols swept through eastern and central Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. The Ilkhanate garrison was stationed near Ankara.[68][69] After the decline of the Ilkhanate from 1335 to 1353, the Mongol Empire's legacy in the region was the Uyghur Eretna Dynasty that was overthrown by Kadi Burhan al-Din in 1381.[70]

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks. Smyrna fell in 1330, and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, Philadelphia, fell in 1390. The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols, at least nominally, through declining Seljuk sultans.[71][72] The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Mongol Ilkhanids.[73] The Osmanli ruler Osman I was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s; they bear the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugrul".[74] Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to a sovereign, it can be considered that the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, had become formally independent from the Mongol Khans.[75]

Ottoman Empire

[edit]
Further information: Ottoman Empire
Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire between 1359 and 1683

Among the Turkish leaders, the Ottomans emerged as great power under Osman I and his son Orhan.[76][77] The Anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising Ottoman Empire during the 15th century.[78] It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or Ottoman Turks, came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.[79] The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) from the Knights of Saint John.[80]

Modern times

[edit]
Further information: History of Turkey
Ethnic map of Asia Minor in 1905–06

With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus, many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly Circassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens and several Turkic groups left their homelands and settled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire further shrank in the Balkan regions and then fragmented during the Balkan Wars, much of the non-Christian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims (Bosniaks, Albanians, Turks, Muslim Bulgarians and Greek Muslims such as the Vallahades from Greek Macedonia), were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostly in formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia.

St. Polycarp Kilisesi Church, in modern-day Izmir.

A continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia, Constantinople and Pontus area migrated toward the newly independent Kingdom of Greece, and also towards the United States, the southern part of the Russian Empire, Latin America, and the rest of Europe.

Mosque in Ankara

Following the Russo-Persian Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) and the incorporation of Eastern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another migration involved the large Armenian population of Anatolia, which recorded significant migration rates from Western Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) toward the Russian Empire, especially toward its newly established Armenian provinces.[81]

Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century (see the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). During World War I, the Armenian genocide, the Greek genocide (especially in Pontus), and the Assyrian genocide almost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian populations in Anatolia and surrounding regions. Following the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Of the remainder, most have left Turkey since then, leaving fewer than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today.[82] According to Morris and Ze'evi, 4 million Christians were ethnically cleansed from Asia minor by the Turks from 1894 to 1924.[83]

Following the Armenian genocide, Western Armenia was renamed the Eastern Anatolia Region by the newly established Turkish government.[84][85] In 1941, with the First Geography Congress which divided Turkey into seven geographical regions based on differences in climate and landscape, the eastern provinces of Turkey were placed into the Eastern Anatolia Region.[86] Vazken Davidian terms the expanded use of "Anatolia" to apply to territory in eastern Turkey that was formerly referred to as Western Armenia as an "ahistorical imposition" and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the Ottoman East as "Eastern Anatolia".[87][84][85]

Geology

[edit]
Salty shores of Lake Tuz

Anatolia's terrain is structurally complex. A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Aegean, Mediterranean, and the Black Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the Kızıl River, the coastal plains of Çukurova and the valley floors of the Gediz River and the Büyük Menderes River as well as some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around Lake Tuz (Salt Lake) and the Konya Basin (Konya Ovasi).

There are two mountain ranges in southern Anatolia: the Taurus and the Zagros mountains.[88]

Climate

[edit]
Main article: Climate of Turkey
  • Temperatures of Anatolia
  • Ankara (central Anatolia)
    Ankara (central Anatolia)
  • Antalya (southern Anatolia)
    Antalya (southern Anatolia)
  • Van (eastern Anatolia)
    Van (eastern Anatolia)

Anatolia has a varied range of climates. The central plateau is characterized by a continental climate, with hot summers and cold snowy winters. The south and west coasts enjoy a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild rainy winters, and warm dry summers.[89] The Black Sea and Marmara coasts have a temperate oceanic climate, with warm, foggy summers and much rainfall throughout the year.

Ecoregions

[edit]
Mediterranean climate is prevalent in the Turkish Riviera
Anatolia's dry central plateau

There is a diverse number of plant and animal communities.

The mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia experience a humid and mild climate. There are temperate broadleaf, mixed and coniferous forests. The central and eastern plateau, with its drier continental climate, has deciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southern Anatolia, which have a Mediterranean climate, contain Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions.

A panorama of the Pontic Mountains in the Black Sea Region of northern Anatolia, Turkey

Demographics

[edit]
Main article: Demographics of Turkey

The largest cities in Anatolia (aside from the Asian side of Istanbul) are Ankara, İzmir, Bursa, Antalya, Konya, Adana, İzmit, Mersin, Manisa, Kayseri, Samsun, Balıkesir, Kahramanmaraş, Aydın, Adapazarı, Denizli, Muğla, Eskişehir, Trabzon, Ordu, Afyonkarahisar, Sivas, Tokat, Zonguldak, Kütahya, Çanakkale, Osmaniye and Çorum. All have populations of more than 500,000.[citation needed]

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Additional alternative names include Asian/Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Peninsula, and the Anatolian Plateau.

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Hopkins, Daniel J.; Staff, Merriam-Webster; 편집부 (2001). Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9. Archived from the original on 28 November 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2001. Anatolia: The part of Turkey in Asia equivalent to the peninsula of Asia Minor up to indefinite line on E from Gulf of Iskenderun to Black Sea comprising about three fifths of Turkey's provinces
  2. ^ a b
    • McColl 2014, p. 922: "Thrace, its European area, is about the size of VERMONT at 9,412 square mi (24,378 square km). Its Asian area (Asia Minor) is called Anatolia and covers 291,971 square mi (756,202 square km)"
    • Cohen 2008, p. 125: "Anatolia, [Gr.=sunrise], Asiatic part of Turkey; its area covers 97% of all Turkey"
    • Tockner, Uehlinger & Robinson 2009: "About 97% of the country is in Asia Minor (Anatolia) and 3% in Europe (Thrace)"
    • "Turkey". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 20 February 2024.: "the 97% of the country in Asia is referred to as Anatolia"
    • "Anatolia". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 February 2024.: "Anatolia, the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey"
    • Steadman & McMahon 2011, p. 466
    • Howard 2016, p. 7
    • Helen Chapin Metz, ed. (1995). "Turkey: A Country Study | Geography". Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Retrieved 31 May 2024.: "The Asian part of the country is known by a variety of names--Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Plateau, and Anatolia (Anadolu)"
  3. ^ Stephen Mitchell (6 July 1995). Anatolia: land, men, and Gods in Asia Minor. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198150296.
  4. ^
  5. ^ a b "Turkey (Turkiye)". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 9 October 2024.
  6. ^ a b KONDA 2006, p. 17
  7. ^ a b c "Illustration of the Lake (later Sea) of Marmara and the formation of the Turkish Straits after the Black Sea deluge". www.ncdc.noaa.gov. 26 January 2014. Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
  8. ^ a b c Dimitrov P., 2003. "The Black Sea – a Clue to the Secret of World Flood". Archived 21 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Oceanology, 4, 52–57.
  9. ^ a b c Dimitrov P., D. Dimitrov. 2004. The Black Sea The Flood and the ancient myths. Archived 15 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine. "Slavena", Varna, ISBN 954579335X, 91 pp., doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.18954.16327.
  10. ^ Philipp Niewohner (2017). The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia: From the End of Late Antiquity until the Coming of the Turks. Oxford University Press. pp. 18–. ISBN 978-0190610470. Archived from the original on 11 March 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2018.
  11. ^ a b Stephen Mitchell (1995). Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor. The Celts in Anatolia and the impact of Roman rule. Clarendon Press, 266 pp. ISBN 978-0198150299 [1] Archived 29 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ Merriam-Webster, Inc (1998). Merriam-Webster's geographical dictionary. Internet Archive. Springfield, Mass. : Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  13. ^ "Kaçkar, Kaçkarlar, Kaçkar Dağları". www.kackar.org. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  14. ^ "Global Volcanism Program | Erciyes Volcanic Complex". Smithsonian Institution | Global Volcanism Program. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  15. ^ Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott. "ἀνατολή". A Greek-English Lexicon. Archived from the original on 26 May 2007. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
  16. ^ a b "Anatolia | Origin and meaning of the name Anatolia". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
  17. ^ "On the First Thema, called Anatolikón. This theme is called Anatolikón or Theme of the Anatolics, not because it is above and in the direction of the east where the sun rises, but because it lies to the East of Byzantium and Europe." Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, De Thematibus, ed. A. Pertusi. Vatican: Vatican Library, 1952, pp. 59 ff.
  18. ^ John Haldon, Byzantium, a History, 2002, p. 32.
  19. ^ Bryce 2009, pp. 297–98.
  20. ^ Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, Ἀσία. Archived 27 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus.
  21. ^ Everett-Heath, John (2018). "Anatolia". The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780191866326.001.0001. ISBN 978-0191866326. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  22. ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). 'They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else': A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-1400865581.
  23. ^ a b Steadman & McMahon 2011, p. 466
  24. ^ Ali Yiğit, "Geçmişten Günümüze Türkiye'yi Bölgelere Ayıran Çalışmalar ve Yapılması Gerekenler", Ankara Üniversitesi Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, IV. Ulural Coğrafya Sempozyumu, "Avrupa Birliği Sürecindeki Türkiye'de Bölgesel Farklılıklar", pp. 34–35. Archived 9 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
  25. ^ Hovannisian, Richard G. (1998). Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0814327777. Archived from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  26. ^ Stiner, Mary C.; Kuhn, Steven L.; Güleç, Erksin (2013). "Early Upper Paleolithic shell beads at Üçağızlı Cave I (Turkey): Technology and the socioeconomic context of ornament life-histories". Journal of Human Evolution. 64 (5): 380–98. Bibcode:2013JHumE..64..380S. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.008. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 23481346.
  27. ^ Whitehouse, Harvey; Martin, Luther H. (2004). Theorizing Religions Past: Archaeology, History, and Cognition. Rowman Altamira. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7591-0621-5.
  28. ^ Curry, Andrew (August 2019). "The first Europeans weren't who you might think". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021.
  29. ^ Krause, Johannes; Jeong, Choongwon; Haak, Wolfgang; Posth, Cosimo; Stockhammer, Philipp W.; Mustafaoğlu, Gökhan; Fairbairn, Andrew; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Julia Gresky (19 March 2019). "Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1218. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1218F. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6425003. PMID 30890703.
  30. ^ Brace, Selina; Diekmann, Yoan; Booth, Thomas J.; van Dorp, Lucy; Faltyskova, Zuzana; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Olalde, Iñigo; Ferry, Matthew; Michel, Megan; Oppenheimer, Jonas; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Stewardson, Kristin; Martiniano, Rui; Walsh, Susan (15 April 2019). "Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3 (5): 765–771. Bibcode:2019NatEE...3..765B. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9. ISSN 2397-334X. PMC 6520225. PMID 30988490.
  31. ^ Olalde, Iñigo; Mallick, Swapan; Patterson, Nick; Rohland, Nadin; Villalba-Mouco, Vanessa; Silva, Marina; Dulias, Katharina; Edwards, Ceiridwen J.; Gandini, Francesca; Pala, Maria; Soares, Pedro; Ferrando-Bernal, Manuel; Adamski, Nicole; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Cheronet, Olivia (15 March 2019). "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science. 363 (6432): 1230–1234. Bibcode:2019Sci...363.1230O. doi:10.1126/science.aav4040. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 6436108. PMID 30872528.
  32. ^ Simões, Luciana G.; Günther, Torsten; Martínez-Sánchez, Rafael M.; Vera-Rodríguez, Juan Carlos; Iriarte, Eneko; Rodríguez-Varela, Ricardo; Bokbot, Youssef; Valdiosera, Cristina; Jakobsson, Mattias (15 June 2023). "Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant". Nature. 618 (7965): 550–556. Bibcode:2023Natur.618..550S. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06166-6. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 10266975. PMID 37286608.
  33. ^ Allentoft, Morten E.; Sikora, Martin; Refoyo-Martínez, Alba; Irving-Pease, Evan K.; Fischer, Anders; Barrie, William; Ingason, Andrés; Stenderup, Jesper; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Pearson, Alice; Sousa da Mota, Bárbara; Schulz Paulsson, Bettina; Halgren, Alma; Macleod, Ruairidh; Jørkov, Marie Louise Schjellerup (11 January 2024). "Population genomics of post-glacial western Eurasia". Nature. 625 (7994): 301–311. Bibcode:2024Natur.625..301A. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06865-0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 10781627. PMID 38200295.
  34. ^ "Indo-European Daughter Languages: Anatolian". www.historyfiles.co.uk. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
  35. ^ "Anatolian languages". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
  36. ^ Bryce 2005, p. 12.
  37. ^ Freeman, Charles (1999). Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198721949.
  38. ^ Akurgal 2001.
  39. ^ Barjamovic 2011.
  40. ^ Carruba, O. Das Palaische. Texte, Grammatik, Lexikon. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1970. StBoT 10
  41. ^ a b Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq
  42. ^ a b Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books, 1966. [ISBN missing]
  43. ^ "History of the Past: World History".
  44. ^ Paul Lunde (May–June 1980). "The Seven Wonders". Saudi Aramco World. Archived from the original on 13 October 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2009.
  45. ^ Mark Cartwright. "Celsus Library". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2 February 2017.
  46. ^ "The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
  47. ^ Melchert 2003
  48. ^ Watkins 1994; id. 1995:144–51; Starke 1997; Melchert 2003; for the geography Hawkins 1998
  49. ^ a b Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times
  50. ^ a b Yavuz, Mehmet Fatih (2010). "Anatolia". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001. ISBN 978-0195170726. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  51. ^ Honey, Linda (5 December 2016). "Justifiably Outraged or Simply Outrageous? The Isaurian Incident of Ammianus Marcellinus". Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1351875745. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  52. ^ Swain, Simon; Adams, J. Maxwell; Janse, Mark (2002). Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 246–66. ISBN 0199245061.
  53. ^ Freeman, Philip, The Galatian Language, Edwin Mellen, 2001, pp. 11–12.
  54. ^ Clackson, James. "Language maintenance and language shift in the Mediterranean world during the Roman Empire." Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds (2012): 36–57. p. 46: The second testimonium for the late survival of Galatian appears in the Life of Saint Euthymius, who died in ad 487.
  55. ^ Norton, Tom. [2] Archived 2 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine | A question of identity: who were the Galatians?. University of Wales. p. 62: The final reference to Galatian comes two hundred years later in the sixth century CE when Cyril of Scythopolis attests that Galatian was still being spoken eight hundred years after the Galatians arrived in Asia Minor. Cyril tells of the temporary possession of a monk from Galatia by Satan and rendered speechless, but when he recovered he spoke only in his native Galatian when questioned: 'If he were pressed, he spoke only in Galatian'.180 After this, the rest is silence, and further archaeological or literary discoveries are awaited to see if Galatian survived any later. In this regard, the example of Crimean Gothic is instructive. It was presumed to have died out in the fifth century CE, but the discovery of a small corpus of the language dating from the sixteenth century altered this perception.
  56. ^ J. Eric Cooper, Michael J. Decker, Life and Society in Byzantine Cappadocia ISBN 0230361064, p. 14
  57. ^ Howgego, C. J. (1995). Ancient History from Coins. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415089920.
  58. ^ Asia Minor Coins Archived 17 March 2020 at the Wayback Machine – an index of Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia)
  59. ^ Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Brill. p. 294. ISBN 978-9004091726.
  60. ^ Schmitt, R. (1986). "ARTAXERXES II". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6. pp. 656–58. Archived from the original on 9 April 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
  61. ^ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1405179362. Archived from the original on 16 April 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
  62. ^ "Mithradates VI Eupator", Encyclopædia Britannica
  63. ^ Hewsen, Robert H. (2009). "Armenians on the Black Sea: The Province of Trebizond". In Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.). Armenian Pontus: The Trebizond-Black Sea Communities. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, Inc. pp. 41, 37–66. ISBN 978-1-56859-155-1.
  64. ^ Bennett, Julian (1997). Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16524-2.. Fig. 1. Regions east of the Euphrates river were held only in the years 116–117.
  65. ^ a b c d e Niewöhner, Philipp (2017). "Chapter 3: Urbanism – The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia". In Niewöhner, Philipp (ed.). The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia: From the End of Late Antiquity until the Coming of the Turks. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–59. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190610463.003.0004. ISBN 9780190610487.
  66. ^ Thonemann, Peter (2018). "Anatolia". The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001. ISBN 978-0198662778. Archived from the original on 6 December 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
  67. ^ Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204. Longman. p. 117. ISBN 978-0582294684.
  68. ^ a b H. M. Balyuzi Muḥammad and the course of Islám, p. 342
  69. ^ John Freely Storm on Horseback: The Seljuk Warriors of Turkey, p. 83
  70. ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth-The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual, p. 234
  71. ^ Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Gary Leiser-The origins of the Ottoman Empire, p. 33
  72. ^ Peter Partner God of battles: holy wars of Christianity and Islam, p. 122
  73. ^ Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire, p. 13
  74. ^ Artuk – Osmanli Beyliginin Kurucusu, 27f
  75. ^ Pamuk – A Monetary History, pp. 30–31
  76. ^ "Osman I | Ottoman sultan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  77. ^ "Orhan | Ottoman sultan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  78. ^ Fleet, Kate (2010). "The rise of the Ottomans". The rise of the Ottomans (Chapter 11) – The New Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge Core. pp. 313–31. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.013. ISBN 978-1139056151. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  79. ^ Finkel, Caroline (2007). Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. Basic Books. p. 5. ISBN 978-0465008506. Archived from the original on 2 January 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
  80. ^ Genito, Bruno (1 March 2012) [15 December 2003]. "Halicarnassus". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2018.
  81. ^ Swietochowski, Tadeusz (1995). Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition. Columbia University Press. pp. 69, 133. ISBN 978-0-231-07068-3.
  82. ^ "The uncertain future of Greeks in Turkey". archive.is. 7 September 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2024.
  83. ^ Morris, Benny; Ze’evi, Dror (24 April 2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-674-91645-6.
  84. ^ a b Sahakyan, Lusine (2010). Turkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey. Montreal: Arod Books. ISBN 978-0969987970.
  85. ^ a b Hovannisian, Richard (2007). The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-1412835923. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
  86. ^ A Comparative Analysis Regarding Pictures Included in Secondary School Geography Textbooks Taught in Turkey. Archived 13 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Okan Yasar and Mehmet Seremet, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 2007.
  87. ^ Vazken Khatchig Davidian, "Imagining Ottoman Armenia: Realism and Allegory in Garabed Nichanian's Provincial Wedding in Moush and Late Ottoman Art Criticism", p. 7 & footnote 34, in Études arméniennes contemporaines volume 6, 2015.
  88. ^ Cemen, Ibrahim; Yilmaz, Yucel (2017). Active Global Seismology: Neotectonics and Earthquake Potential of the Eastern Mediterranean Region. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1118945018.
  89. ^ Prothero, W.G. (1920). Anatolia. London: H.M. Stationery Office. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
  90. ^ "Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
  91. ^ "Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
  92. ^ "Central Anatolian deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
  93. ^ "Central Anatolian steppe". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
  94. ^ "Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
  95. ^ "Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
  96. ^ "Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
  97. ^ "Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
  98. ^ "Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 May 2008.

Sources

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Library resources about
Anatolia
  • Akat, Yücel, Neşe Özgünel, and Aynur Durukan. 1991. Anatolia: A World Heritage. Ankara: Kültür Bakanliǧi.
  • Brewster, Harry. 1993. Classical Anatolia: The Glory of Hellenism. London: I. B. Tauris.
  • Donbaz, Veysel, and Şemsi Güner. 1995. The Royal Roads of Anatolia. Istanbul: Dünya.
  • Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. 2013. Empire, Authority, and Autonomy In Achaemenid Anatolia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Gates, Charles, Jacques Morin, and Thomas Zimmermann. 2009. Sacred Landscapes In Anatolia and Neighboring Regions. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  • Mikasa, Takahito, ed. 1999. Essays On Ancient Anatolia. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
  • Takaoğlu, Turan. 2004. Ethnoarchaeological Investigations In Rural Anatolia. İstanbul: Ege Yayınları.
  • Taracha, Piotr. 2009. Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
  • Taymaz, Tuncay, Y. Yilmaz, and Yildirim Dilek. 2007. The Geodynamics of the Aegean and Anatolia. London: Geological Society.
[edit]
  • Media related to Anatolia at Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "http://en.wiki.x.io/w/index.php?title=Anatolia&oldid=1263382101#Geography"