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Draft:Italian campaign of Albania (1916–1919)

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Italian invasion of Albania (1916–1919)
Part of World War I in Albania during the Balkans theatre of World War I and the collapse of the Principality of Albania

Italian soldiers in Vlorë, Albania, during World War I. The tricolour flag of Italy bearing the Savoy royal shield is shown hanging alongside an Albanian flag from the balcony of the Italian prefecture headquarters.
Date1916 – 1919
(Occupation of Vlorë since 1914)
Location
Southern Albania
Result
Belligerents

 Italy

Supported by:
 Kingdom of Serbia

 Austria-Hungary

  • Austro-Hungarian occupied Albania
Albanian volunteers and irregulars
Commanders and leaders
Kingdom of Italy Settimio Piacentini
Kingdom of Italy Emilio Bertotti[1]
Kingdom of Italy Giacinto Ferrero
Kingdom of Italy Oreste Bandini[2]
Kingdom of Italy Settimio Piacentini
Turhan Përmeti[3][4]		 Austria-Hungary Hermann Kövess von Kövessháza
Austria-Hungary Ignaz Trollmann[5]
Austria-Hungary Karl von Pflanzer-Baltin
Austria-Hungary Ludwig Können-Horák[6]: 150–159 
Ahmet Zogu[7]
Prênk Bibë Doda[citation needed]
Units involved

Kingdom of Italy Italian XVI Army Corps "Corpo Speciale d’Albania":[2]

  • 38th brigades ("Savona" and "Puglie")
  • 43rd brigades ("Arno" and "Marche")
  • 44th brigades ("Taranto" and "Verona")

Austria-Hungary Austrian XIX Army Corps[6]: 159 [6]: 374 :[5]

Austria-Hungary Austrian 3rd Army Corps
Albanian irregulars

Strength
Kingdom of Italy approx. 100,000 men[3][2] (initially)
Kingdom of Italy About 144,000 men[4][dubious – discuss] (peak)		 Austria-Hungary 100,000+ men[9][10][dubious – discuss]
5,000–6,000 irregulars and militia[8]
Casualties and losses

Kingdom of Italy Total: 2,214 casualties (1916–1918)[11]

  • 298 dead
  • 1,069 wounded
  • 847 missing
 Austria-Hungary approx. 2,000 prisoners in Berat[12]
Unknown
More casualty details in body text

The Italian Campaign of Albania (1916–1919) (in Italian: Campagna Italiana di Albania), took place between 1916 and 1919 in the territory of Albania, as part of the wider events of the Balkans theatre of World War I.

At the outbreak of the war, Albania, which had been independent for less than two years, was in a state of deep internal crisis, with the weak government of Prime Minister Essad Pasha (allied with the Kingdom of Serbia) undermined by armed groups supported by Austria-Hungary and by the territorial claims of neighboring states, particularly Italy and Greece.[13] The defeat of the Serbian army by the Central Powers in October 1915 and its retreat towards the Adriatic coast through northern Albania prompted Austria-Hungary to invade the country and, conversely, Italy to deploy its expeditionary force to protect the serbian soldiers during the retreat[14][15][7] and to maintain possession of the strategic port of Valona (which was occupied in December 1914);[16][17] the situation stabilized at the end of 1916, with the Austro-Hungarians masters of the northern and central regions and the Italians of the south, where they found support from French forces engaged on the Macedonian front. Meanwhile, to protect the Greek minority, Greek control was established in the southern districts replacing the Northern Epirote units beginning in October 1914,[17] but Italian troops drove the Greeks from southern Albania and by October 31, 1918, brought almost all Albanian territory under their control.[18][17]

Albania after fragmentation in 1916. The lower green area indicates the Italian protectorate as of summer 1917. In autumn 1918, it was enlarged to encompass the former Austro-Hungarian area.

The Albanian front remained stationary until mid-1918 when, as part of the larger offensives undertaken by the Allies in the Balkans, the Italian forces went on the attack, progressively pushing the Austro-Hungarians back north and taking control of the entire country, until the signing of the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918 which marked the end of hostilities with Austria-Hungary.[12][17]

The historical context

[edit]

The Constitution of Independent Albania

[edit]
Main articles: Independent Albania and Principality of Albania
Wilhelm of Wied arriving in Durazzo on March 7 1914.

Long a possession of the Ottoman Empire, Albania gained independence on the eve of World War I: in January 1912 a large revolt in Albanian territories forced the Ottoman authorities to accept an agreement granting broad autonomy to the region,[19][20][21] and on 28 November 1912 an assembly of local nationalists gathered in Vlorë proclaimed the independence of the nation as "independent Albania" and the establishment of a provisional Albanian government headed by Ismail Qemali.[22] The neighbouring Balkan nations, however, had different expansionist aims on the territories of Albania itself, aims which came to fruition during the events of the First Balkan War (October 1912-May 1913): the Kingdom of Montenegro aimed at annexing the city of Scutari in the north,[23] the Kingdom of Serbia aspired to the possession of northern and central Albania in order to obtain an outlet to the Adriatic Sea (which concluded in the formation of the Drač County),[24][25] while the Kingdom of Greece aimed at occupying Northern Epirus, a region inhabited by a large Greek minority.[26]

The expansionist aims of the states of the "Balkan League" found prompt opposition from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which in particular opposed the obtaining of an outlet to the sea for enemy Serbia, and from the Kingdom of Italy, which looked favourably upon an independent Albania on which to exercise a dominant political influence.[27] The ambassadors of the main European powers, meeting in London to redraw the territorial layout of the Balkans, now irremediably changed by the conflict, therefore supported the idea of an independent Albania to which the nations of the League had to submit: the Treaty of London of 30 May 1913, concluding the First Balkan War, therefore recognised the institution of an independent Albanian state extending from Scutari to Northern Epirus. For the government of the new state the great powers chose a German prince, Wilhelm of Wied, who on 7 March 1914 was crowned as sovereign of the Principality of Albania, for which the International Control Commission,[28] appointed by the powers, was given the task of organizing the administration of the new state with the help of an International Gendarmerie composed of local troops supervised by Dutch officers,[29] who were gradually replaced by German and Austrian officers who arrived in Durazzo on July 4.[30]

The Collapse of the Central Government

[edit]
Main article: Collapse of the Principality of Albania
Essad Pasha, the pro-serbian prime minister of Albania.

The internal situation of independent Albania was more chaotic than ever, a condition fueled both by the destabilizing maneuvers of neighboring nations and by political divisions among the Albanian nationalists themselves.[31][32] Essad Pasha, former Ottoman general and leader of the resistance of Scutari to the siege of the Montenegrins, established in October 1913 a "Republic of Central Albania" with its headquarters in Durazzo,[33] presenting itself as an alternative to the provisional government of Ismail Qemali located in Valona; under pressure from the European powers Essad then accepted the post of Minister of the Interior in the nascent government of Prince Wilhelm, but in January 1914, strong in the support of the Serbs,[34][35] he attempted a coup d'état in Elbasan with the units of the Albanian gendarmerie, clashing with the units of the International Gendarmerie and those of the regular army that remained faithful to Wilhelm.[36] In the south, on 28 February 1914 the regions inhabited by Greeks proclaimed independence as the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus under the leadership of Georgios Christakis-Zografos with the open support of the government of Athens, while in the north the local Catholic clans supported by Austria-Hungary with an anti-Serbian function established their own militias under the leadership of Prênk Bibë Doda and Bajram Curri, who were joined by the armed groups of the nationalist leader Isa Boletini recruited among the Albanian expatriates of Kosovo, who fled after the annexation of the region to Serbia;[36] the rest of the country was then affected by widespread banditry, as well as riots organised by the various clans against each other.[37]

The anti-Muslim alliance between the Catholics of the north, the Kosovars of Boletini and the Gendarmerie of Prince Wilhelm put Essad Pasha's forces in a hard situation, forcing him into exile in Italy in May 1914;[37] a vast peasant revolt of Muslim inspiration,[38] led by Haxhi Qamili[39] from the central regions and in favour of a restoration of Ottoman rule over Albania,[40][41] however, put the central authorities in such difficulty that their control was reduced in practice to the sole provisional capital of Durazzo after the capture by the rebels of Berat on 12 July 1914 and of Valona on 21 August. On 3 September 1914 Prince Wilhelm, although not formally renouncing his role as monarch, left Albania to take refuge in Venice and was exlied there without trial.[42] Three days later, the International Control Commission ceased to exist, leaving the country at the mercy of chaos.[43]

The Albanian Senate appealed to the exiled Essad Pasha to form a new government; with Italian support, on 17 September 1914 Essad signed a treaty of alliance with Serbian Prime Minister Nikola Pašić which guaranteed him economic and military support for his work of reconquering Albania.[44] Essad returned to Albania in October 1914 and his forces quickly secured control of Durazzo and the central regions, but failed to restore order in the rest of the country:[45] while the northern regions remained out of control, after clashes between Essad's men and Epirote independentists, on 27 October 1914 the Greek army invaded Northern Epirus and established a military administration on the territories formerly part of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus.[36]

Italian prime minister Antonio Salandra.

The Greek move worried the Italian government, fearful that Athens was acting under the aegis of Austria-Hungary to guarantee Vienna the possession of Valona and therefore the passage through the Strait of Otranto; presenting its move as an attempt to limit the smuggling of arms into the Albanian region, on 31 October 1914 the government of Prime Minister Antonio Salandra ordered the occupation of the Albanian islet of Saseno[46] by a landing force of the Regia Marina, followed on 26 December by the unopposed landing in the port of Valona[47] of units of Italian sailors later joined by a regiment of bersaglieri and a battery of mountain artillery of the Regio Esercito.[48]

Course of the campaign

[edit]

First operations and serbian front

[edit]

The events of the internal crisis in Albania were now becoming linked to those of the First World War, which began on 28 July 1914 with the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary against Serbia (July Crisis) when Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated.[49] The Austro-Hungarians began to supply weapons and funds to the Catholic militias of Bajram Curri and the Kosovar armed groups of Isa Boletini so that they could conduct raids and harassment actions against Serbian positions in Kosovo. The situation of the pro-Serbian government of Essad Pasha worsened in November, with the entry into the war of the Ottoman Empire on the side of the Central Powers: the authorities in Constantinople (Istanbul) proclaimed a jihad against the nations of the Triple Entente and their allies, and groups of Muslim rebels soon put Essad's Albanian gendarmes in a tight spot, cutting him off and effectively besieging him inside Durazzo.[50][better source needed]

Serbian forces retreat through Albania in late 1915.

Essad's critical position prompted his Serbian allies to intervene: on 29 May 1915, a contingent of 20,000 Serbian soldiers under the command of General Dragutin Milutinović invaded northern Albania from three directions, quickly dispersing the pro-Habsburg militias of Curri and Boletini, forcing them to take refuge in their strongholds in the district of Mirdita; within ten days the Serbs extended their occupation to the central regions, taking Elbasan and Tirana and freeing Essad's forces in Durazzo from the siege of the Muslim rebels.[50][better source needed] Taking advantage of the situation, on 11 June King Nicholas I of Montenegro, an ally of the Serbs, ordered the occupation of Albanian territory north of the Drin River, and on 15 June the Montenegrins entered Scutari;[51] although at least formally Essad's government was in favour of the Triple Entente, the Allied governments began to formulate a territorial division of Albania between Montenegro, Serbia, Greece and Italy, and agreements in this sense were outlined during the stipulation in April 1915 of the London Pact with the Italian government, which was about to declare war against Austria-Hungary.[50][better source needed]

The entry into the war of the Kingdom of Bulgaria on the side of the Central Powers on 7 October 1915 sealed the fate of Serbia: attacked from the north by a joint Austro-German army and from the east by the Bulgarians, the Serbian army was defeated and routed towards the region of Kosovo; the landing of Anglo-French forces at Salonika failed to bring any benefit to Serbia, as the Bulgarian troops quickly occupied Vardar Macedonia, preventing the reunion of the allies.[52] On 28 November 1915, the Serbian commander-in-chief, General Radomir Putnik, ordered a general retreat from Kosovo towards northern Albania and the Adriatic coast, from where the Serbs hoped to obtain relief from the Allied naval forces: in the middle of winter, under heavy snowfall and with poor supplies of food, the Serbian forces had to cross the difficult mountainous region of Prokletije, losing tens of thousands of men to hardship, hypothermia and attacks by Albanian irregulars before reaching the areas controlled by Essad Pasha's gendarmes.[50][better source needed]

Serbian evacuation and Italian intervention

[edit]
Main article: Serbian campaign
Operations of the forces of the Central Powers in the Balkans between October 1915 and August 1916.

Faced with the collapse of Serbia in October 1915, the Entente governments pressured Italy to send a contingent to Albania and to make its naval forces in the Adriatic available to bring supplies to Putnik's men. After long discussions between the Italians, French and British about the distribution of the burden of the operation, on 22 November 1915 the naval supply missions from Italy to Albania began, while at the beginning of December the landing of Italian troops began: on 1 December a naval convoy brought to Valona the first 5,000 soldiers of the "Italian Special Corps of Albania", brought to a total of 28,000 men under General Emilio Bertotti by mid-December and to 50,000 men in January, with the "Savona" and "Verona" brigades, two regiments of territorial militia, a cavalry squadron, three mountain batteries and four heavy artillery batteries.[12]

The Austro-Hungarian fleet attempted to disturb these operations: on 5 December the light cruiser Novara with four destroyers and three torpedo boats bombarded the port of San Giovanni di Medua sinking two cargo ships, while on 6 December the cruiser Helgoland with six destroyers attacked the roadstead of Durazzo sinking two Italian and three Albanian sailing ships.[53] On 29 December the Helgoland and five destroyers carried out a new action against Durazzo, but the group ended up in a naval minefield losing the destroyer Lika while the same type Triglav, damaged, was then sunk after being intercepted by an Anglo-French-Italian naval group.[54] The failure led to the suspension of Austro-Hungarian surface raids against traffic directed to Albania, which were countered by the actions of thesubmarines only.

After defeating and forcing Montenegro to surrender in a rapid campaign after the Battle of Lovćen Pass,[55] at the end of January 1916 Austro-Hungarian forces invaded northern Albania in pursuit of the remnants of the Serbian army, while Bulgarian units penetrated the country from the north-east across the Drin river: the Bulgarians took Elbasan on 29 January, while the Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps under General Ignaz Trollmann von Lovcenberg (with the 47th, 81st Infantry Divisions and the 220th k.k. Landsturm Brigade) began to fight its way into central Albania.[5] The exhausted Serbian army was unable to oppose this invasion, and it was therefore decided to evacuate it by sea: Italian, French and British ships began the first embarkations of troops from the ports of San Giovanni di Medua and Durazzo on 12 December 1915, and on 24 December King Peter I of Serbia embarked with his entourage to Brindisi; the Italians insisted strongly that the Serbian army move from its quarters in the north to the safer port of Valona in the south, a manoeuvre which began on 7 January 1916.[56] Two interventions by surface units of the Austro-Hungarian fleet against the convoys, on 27 January and 6 February, were effectively repelled by the Allied escort units.[57]

Serbian soldiers during the evacuation operations by sea from Albanian ports.

The embarkation operations from San Giovanni di Medua concluded on 22 January and the city was evacuated, ending up being occupied by the Austro-Hungarians on 29 January; the embarkation of the Serbs from Durazzo ended on 9 February, but it was decided to keep the Italian garrison already present in the port (about 9,000 men of the "Savona" Brigade with artillery and support units, under the command of General Giacinto Ferrero) in an attempt to ensure the protection of the weak government of Essad Pasha.[12] The Austro-Hungarian XIX Corps occupied Tirana on 11 February without encountering resistance, and then approached Durazzo; after a failed surprise assault on the Italian positions in the village of Pieskza, the Austro-Hungarians began a strong attack on the morning of 23 February, immediately putting Ferrero's units under pressure and pushing the Italian command to order the evacuation of the city. Despite the rough sea and the Austro-Hungarian artillery fire, the Italian troops managed to embark on the transports hastily assembled for the operation, while the battleship Enrico Dandolo and the destroyers of the Regia Marina kept the enemy units at bay with their large calibre guns; the last units of the "Savona" Brigade were embarked on the evening of 26 February and transported to safety in Valona, after having lost around 800 men between dead, wounded and prisoners.[58] Among those evacuated from Durazzo there was also Essad Pasha with the remains of his government and several hundred loyalists, transported to safety in Italy;[2] after a stay in Rome and Paris, in August 1916 Essad reached Salonika where with the assistance of the Serbs and the French he set up a cabinet recognised by the Allies as the Albanian government in exile.[50][better source needed]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Spedizione italiana in Albania - Fatti d'arme - Occupazione". storiologia.it. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
  2. ^ a b c d Thomas & Babac 2014, p. 36.
  3. ^ a b Southern Albania, 1912-1923. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804761710. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  4. ^ a b Stickney 1924, p. 65.
  5. ^ a b c Thomas & Babac 2014, p. 23.
  6. ^ a b c Österreich-Ungarns letzter Krieg 1914-1918, Österreichisches Bundesministerium für Heerwesen (a.c.), Vol. 4 Das Kriegsjahr 1916. Die Ereignisse von Jänner bis Ende Juli, 1933, Militärwissenschaftliche Mitteilungen, Wien
  7. ^ a b Pearson 2004, p. 95.
  8. ^ a b Thomas & Babac 2014, p. 37.
  9. ^ Elena Kocaqi. "Administrimi i Shqipërisë nga Austro-Hungaria 1916–1918 (Vorwort zum Buch)" (in Albanian).
  10. ^ Elena Kocaqi. "Administrimi i Shqipërisë nga Austro-Hungaria 1916–1918 (Die Administration Albaniens von Österreich-Ungarn 1916–1918)" (in Albanian).
  11. ^ Ministero della Difesa: L’Esercito italiano nella Grande Guerra (1915–1918), vol. VII: Le operazioni fuori del territorio nazionale: Albania, Macedonia, Medio Oriente, t. 3° bis: documenti, Rome 1981, Parte Prima, doc. 77, p. 173 and Parte Seconda, doc. 78, p. 351; Mortara, La salute pubblica in Italia 1925, p. 37.
  12. ^ a b c d "L'opera del XVI Corpo d'armata italiano in Albania in 1918". Retrieved 11 March 2015.
  13. ^ Richard C. Hall 2014, pp. 4–7.
  14. ^ Pavlović, Vojislav G. (2019). Serbia and Italy in the Great War. Institut for Balkan Studies. ISBN 978-86-7179-103-8.
  15. ^ Ramoino, Pier Paolo. "Il salvataggio dell'Esercito Serbo" (PDF). cssii.unifi.it (in Italian).
  16. ^ Xhilda Shuka. "Italy and the War of Vlora in 1920" (PDF). pp. 325–336.
  17. ^ a b c d Thomas & Babac 2014, p. 17.
  18. ^ Richard C. Hall 2014, p. 7.
  19. ^ Liotta, P. H.; Jebb, Cindy R. (2004). Mapping Macedonia: Idea and Identity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-275-98247-8. Retrieved April 9, 2012.
  20. ^ Phillips, John (2004). "The rise of Albanian nationalism". Macedonia: warlords and rebels in the Balkans. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-86064-841-0. An Albanian uprising in Kosovo for independent schools in May 1912 led to capture of Skopje by rebels in August
  21. ^ Taru Bahl; M.H. Syed (2003). "The Balkan Wars and creation of Independent Albania". Encyclopaedia of the Muslim World. New Delhi: Anmol publications PVT. Ltd. p. 53. ISBN 978-81-261-1419-1. The Albanians once more raise against Ottoman Empire in May 1912 and took Macedonian capitol of Skopje by August[permanent dead link‍]
  22. ^ Ivetic 2006, p. 103.
  23. ^ Vickers 1999, p. 71.
  24. ^ Bogdanović, Dimitrije; Radovan Samardžić (1990). Knjiga o Kosovu: razgovori o Kosovu. Književne novine. p. 208. ISBN 9788639101947. Retrieved August 2, 2011. На освојеном подручју су одмах успостављене грађанске власти и албанска територија је Де Факто анектирана Србији : 29. новембра је основан драчки округ са четири среза (Драч, Љеш, Елбасан, Тирана)....On conquered territory of Albania was established civil government and territory of Albania was de facto annexed by Serbia: On November 29 was established Durres County with four srez (Durres, Lezha, Elbasan, and Tirana)
  25. ^ Petrović, Dragoljub S. (1990). "Heterogenost stanovništva determinanta složenosti rešenja političkog statusa albanskog prostora (Heterogeneity of the population as determinant of the complexity of solving the political status of the Albania)" (in Serbian). pp. 237–271. OCLC 439985244. Potom, 29. novembra 1912. formiran je Drački okrug u okviru kojeg su srezovi - Drač, Tirana, Elbasan i Lješ. ... On November 29, 1912 the Durres County was established and in it there were established the following districts - Durres, Tirana, Elbasan and Lezhe
  26. ^ Thomopoulos, Elaine (2012). The History of Greece. ABC-CLIO. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-313-37511-8.
  27. ^ Ivetic 2006, p. 98.
  28. ^ Zaharia, Perikli (March 24, 2003). "The post - 1989 constitutional course of south east Europe". Athens: Centre for European Constitutional Law. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011. Retrieved January 22, 2011. Treaty of May 30, 1913. As it was decided at the London Conference of Ambassadors, the sovereignty of Albania was under the protection of the six great powers: Austria, England, France, Germany, Italy and Russia. At the same time, an International Control Commission was created.
  29. ^ Ivetic 2006, pp. 142–145.
  30. ^ Elsie, Robert. "Albania under Prince Wied". Archived from the original on July 17, 2011.
  31. ^ Tallon, James (January 2014). "Albania's Long World War I, 1912-1925: Albania in WWI". Research Gate.
  32. ^ "ALBANIAN CIVIL WAR". Bendigo Advertiser. 1914-05-26. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  33. ^ Elsie, Robert. "Introduction to Memorandum on Albania, written by Robert Elsie". Switzerland: Web site of Robert Elsie, specialist on Albanian studies. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2011. On 16 October 1913, ... Toptani set up a rival government based in Durrës, called the Republic of Central Albania.
  34. ^ Bataković, Dušan (1992). "Albanian Incursions into Serbia". In Ivan Čolović (ed.). The Kosovo Chronicles. Belgrade: Knjižara Plato. ISBN 86-447-0006-5. Retrieved 8 January 2011. around 20,000 ethnic Albanians who fled Old Serbia and Macedonia found themselves on Albanian soil, while their leaders Hasan Pristina and Isa Boljetinac sat in the government at Valona. Austro-Hungarian and Italian emissaries and agents, mostly the clergy and teachers, suppressed Essad Pasha's influence and appealed to the ethnic Albanians to rise against the Serbs
  35. ^ Vickers, Miranda (2006) [1995]. The Albanians: a modern history. London: I.B. Taurus. p. 82. ISBN 1-86064-541-0. Retrieved 8 January 2011. Serbia had come to an understanding with Essad. ...Essad Pasha will be sent money, military plan calls for the complete annihilation ..... of Ismail Kemal, Isa Boletini and their friends,.... to undertake boundary rectification, in accordance with Serbia's wishes, up to the Black Drin.
  36. ^ a b c Thomas & Babac 2014, p. 35.
  37. ^ a b Thomas & Babac 2014, pp. 33–35.
  38. ^ Heaton-Armstrong, Duncan (2005). "An Uprising in the Six-Month Kingdom". Gervase Belfield and Bejtullah Destani (IB Tauris, in association with the Centre for Albanian Studies). Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2011. Muslim uprising in central Albania, one of the factors that led to the Prince's withdrawal from the country and the fall of the so-called six-month kingdom on the eve of the First World War.
  39. ^ "The Efforts to settle amputated Albania state". albaniainbrief.com. Archived from the original on June 1, 2011. Retrieved January 28, 2011. Thousands of muslim peasants, …were exploited by their leaders Haxhi Qamili, Arif Hiqmeti, Musa Qazimi and Mustafa Ndroqi, …to rebel
  40. ^ Jelavich, Barbara (1999) [1983], History of the Balkans: Twentieth century, vol. 2, Cambridge, UK: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, p. 103, ISBN 0-521-27459-1, retrieved January 25, 2011, Soon the government was faced with major peasant revolt
  41. ^ "Fighting in Albania, The armistice broken". The Advertiser. Adelaide: 15. 1914. Retrieved January 25, 2011. Essad Pasha wished to obtain the Crown of Albania, and the peasants' revolt as well as Arif Hikmet's actions were his work.
  42. ^ Heaton-Armstrong, Duncan (2005). "An Uprising in the Six-Month Kingdom". Gervase Belfield and Bejtullah Destani (I.B. Tauris, in association with the Centre for Albanian Studies). Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2011. Essad would be sent into exile, without a trial.
  43. ^ Thomas & Babac 2014, pp. 35–37.
  44. ^ Bataković, Dušan T. (1992), "Serbian government and Essad Pasha Toptani", The Kosovo Chronicles, Belgrade, Serbia: Knižara Plato, ISBN 86-447-0006-5, archived from the original on September 6, 2010, retrieved January 19, 2011, The senate of free towns in central Albania invited Essad Pasha to take over power.
  45. ^ Bataković, Dušan T. (1992), "Serbian government and Essad Pasha Toptani", The Kosovo Chronicles, Belgrade, Serbia: Knižara Plato, ISBN 86-447-0006-5, archived from the original on September 6, 2010, retrieved January 19, 2011, The 15 points envisaged the setting up of joint political and military institutions,... focused on a military alliance, the construction of an Adriatic railroad to Durazzo and guarantees that Serbia would support Essad Pasha's election as the Albanian ruler. ...The demarcation between the two countries was to be drawn by a special Serbo-Albanian commission
  46. ^ The New York Sun 1914, p. 1
  47. ^ New-York Tribune 1914, p. 1
  48. ^ Favre 2008, p. 55.
  49. ^ Albertini 1953, pp. 35–41.
  50. ^ a b c d e "Liberation of Kosovo and Metohia". rastko.rs.
  51. ^ Thomas & Babac 2014, p. 33.
  52. ^ Favre 2008, p. 89.
  53. ^ Favre 2008, p. 93.
  54. ^ Favre 2008, pp. 113–116.
  55. ^ Srdja Pavlovic: Balkan Anschluss: The Annexation of Montenegro and the Creation of the Common South Slavic State, West Lafayette (Indiana): Purdue University Press 2008, pp. 75–86.
  56. ^ Favre 2008, p. 137.
  57. ^ Favre 2008, p. 138.
  58. ^ Favre 2008, pp. 140–141.

Sources

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