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Diolkos

Coordinates: 37°56′59.95″N 22°57′40.61″E / 37.9499861°N 22.9612806°E / 37.9499861; 22.9612806
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For ancient attempts at cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, see Corinth Canal.
The Isthmus with the Canal of Corinth close to which the diolkos ran
Strategic position of the Isthmus of Corinth between two seas

The Diolkos—from the Greek dia (across) and holkos (portage)—was a paved trackway in Ancient Greece which enabled boats to be moved overland across the Isthmus of Corinth. The 6 km (3.7 mi) to 8.5 km (5.3 mi) long roadway was a rudimentary form of railway,[1] and operated from ca. 600 BC until the middle of the 1st century AD.[2][3][4][5][6]

Function

The Diolkos saved ships sailing from the Ionian Sea to the Aegean Sea a dangerous sea journey round the Peloponnese peninsula, whose three headlands had a reputation for gales, especially Cape Matapan and Cape Malea.[4][7][8] By contrast, both the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf were relatively sheltered waters. In addition, the overland passage of the Isthmus, a neck of land 6.4 km (4.0 mi) wide at its narrowest, offered a much shorter route to Athens for ships sailing to/from the Ionian coast of Greece.

History

Ancient literature is silent on the date of the construction of the Diolkos. For Thucydides (460 BC–395 BC) the Diolkos already seemed to be something ancient.[9] Excavated letters and associated pottery found at the site indicate a construction date at the end of the 7th or beginning of the 6th century BC, that is around the time when Periander was tyrant of Corinth.[2][3][4][5][6] The Diolkos remained reportedly in regular service until at least the middle of the 1st century AD, after which no more written references appear.[6] Possibly the trackway was put out of use by Nero’s abortive canal works in AD 67.[10][6] Much later transports of warships across the Isthmus in the late 9th century[11][12] and around 1150 are not assumed to have been on the Diolkos due to the extensive time lag.[11][13]

Role in warfare

The Diolkos played an important role in ancient naval warfare. Greek historians note several occasions from the 5th to 1st century BC when warships were hauled across the Isthmus in order to speed up naval campaigning.[14] In 428 BC, the Spartans planned to transport their warships over the Diolkos to the Saronic Gulf to threaten Athens,[15] while later in the Peloponnesian War they carted over a squadron heading quickly for operations at Chios (411 BC).[16] In 220 BC, Demetrius of Pharos had a fleet of about fifty vessels dragged across the Isthmus to the Bay of Corinth by his men.[17] Three years later, a Macedonian fleet of 38 vessels was sent across by Philip V, while the larger warships sailed around Cape Malea.[18] After his victory at Actium (31 BC), Octavian advanced as fast as possible against Marc Antony by ordering part of his 260 Liburnians to be carried over the Isthmus.[19] In AD 868, the Byzantine admiral Niketas Oryphas had his whole fleet of one hundred dromons dragged across the Isthmus in a quickly executed operation,[12] but this took place most likely on a different route.[13][11]

Role in commerce

Despite the frequent mentioning of the Diolkos in connection with military operations, modern scholarship assumes that the prime purpose of the trackway must have been the transport of cargo, considering that warships cannot have needed transporting very often, and ancient historiography was always more interested in war than commerce.[3][20][21][22][23] Comments by Pliny and Strabo who described in times of peace the Diolkos as being in regular service also imply a commercial use of the trackway.[3] Coinciding with the rise of monumental architecture in Greece, the construction of the Diolkos may have initially served particularly for transporting heavy goods like marble, monoliths and timber to points west and east.[24][5][25] It is not known what tolls Corinth could extract from the Diolkos on its territory, but the fact that the trackway was used and maintained long after its construction, indicates that it remained for merchant ships an attractive alternative to the trip around Cape Malea for much of antiquity.[26]

Structure

Course

Mooring place

The Diolkos runs across the narrowest part of the Isthmus, where the trackway followed the local topography in a curved course in order to avoid steeper gradients.[27] The roadway passes the Isthmus ridge at ca. 79 m (259 ft) height with an average gradient of 1:70,[27] while the steepest sections rise up to 6%.[28] Its total length is estimated at 6–7 km (3.7–4.3 mi)[28], 8 km (5 mi) [27] or 8.5 km (5.3 mi)[7] depending on the number of supposed bends taken into account. A total of 1,100 m (3,609 ft) has been archaeologically traced, mainly at its western end close to the bay of Corinth.[27] There the known trackway begins at a mooring place south of the canal, runs parallel to the waterway for a few hundred meters, after which it switches to the north side, running in a slight bend a similar distance along the canal.[29] From there on, the Diolkos either followed in a straight line the course of the modern canal,[30] or swung south in a wide arc.[31][7] The roadway ended at the Saronic Gulf at the village Schoinos (today: Kalamaki) described by Strabo as eastern terminal.[27] Some sections of the Diolkos have been destroyed by the 19th century canal[7] or other modern installations.[32]

Track and transport

Image of a ship on Attic black-figure pottery. c.520 B.C. This is the sort of boat that the diolkos may have transported in Periander's time.

The Diolkos was a trackway paved with hard limestone[7] and parallel grooves running about 160 cm (63 in) apart.[13] The roadway was 3.4 m (11.2 ft) to 6 m (20 ft) wide.[7] Since ancient sources tell us little about how the ships were hauled across,[27] the mode of ship transport has largely to be reconstructed from the archaeological evidence. The tracks indicate that transport on the Diolkos was done with some sort of wheeled vehicle.[3][26][33] Either vessel and cargo were hauled across on separate vehicles, or only the cargo was taken across and reloaded on a different ship at the other side of the Isthmus.[34][25] It is assumed that the vessels were usually rather boats than ships,[25][35] although a technical analysis has shown that the transport of Triremes (25 t, 35 m (115 ft) long, 5 m (16 ft) beam) was technically feasible,[36] but difficult.[37] To prevent the danger of breaking the keel in middle during transport, hypozomata must have been used which were thick ropes running from bow to stern meant to reduce sagging and hogging of the hull.[33] Ship and cargo were presumably pulled by men and animals with the help of ropes, tackles[22] and possibly also capstans.[38]

Ancient railway

According to the British historian of science M.J.T. Lewis, the Diolkos represented a railway, in the basic sense of a prepared track which so guides the vehicles running on it that they cannot leave the track.[1] Measuring between 6 km (4 mi) and 8.5 km (5.3 mi),[28] [27][7] remaining in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years,[2][3][4][5][6] and being open to all on payment, it constituted even a public railway, a concept which according to Lewis did not recur until around 1800.[39] Also, its average gauge of around 160 cm (63 in)[13] is similar to modern standards.

However, a close examination of the excavated tracks may give a more differentiated picture. While there is agreement that the grooves in the eastern part were cut deliberately into the stone slabs to guide cart wheels,[40][32][13] those in the western section are interpreted by some authors as a result of wear or do not appear at all.[41][42] On the other hand, the marked cambers of this road section may point at deliberate tracks as well.[13] Generally, varying forms of the grooves can also be explained with the long time of operation of the trackway during which modifications and repairs must have significantly changed the appearance of the Diolkos.[23]

Modern exploration

The chief engineer of the Corinth Canal Béla Gerster conducted extensive research on the topography of the Isthmus, but did not discover the Diolkos.[21] Remains of the ship trackway were probably first identified by the German archaeologist Lolling in the 1883 Baedeker edition.[8] In 1913, J.G. Frazer reported in his commentary of Pausanias on traces of an ancient trackway across the Isthmus,[43] while parts of the western quay were discovered by Fowler in 1932.[8]

Systematic excavations were finally undertaken by the Greek archaeologist Nikolaos Verdelis between 1956 and 1962,[44] who uncovered a more or less continuous stretch of 800 m (2,600 ft) and traced about 1,100 m (3,600 ft) in all.[7] Even though Verdelis’ excavation reports continue to provide the basis for modern interpretations, his premature passing prevented full publication, leaving many questions open concerning the exact nature of the structure.[45][7] Additional investigations in situ, meant to complement Verdelis’ work, were later published by Georges Raepsaet and Walter Werner.[46][47]

Petition

Today, erosion caused by ship movements on the nearby Canal has left considerable portions of the Diolkos in demolition, particularly at its excavated western end.[48] Critics who blame the Greek Ministry of Culture for continued inactivity have launched a petition for saving and restoring the registered archaeological site.[49]

Ancient sources

The following ancient writers mention the transfer of ships across the Isthmus (in chronological order):

References

  1. ^ a b Lewis, M. J. T., "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A. / Rees, J. (eds), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (2001), pp. 8–19 (8 & 15)
  2. ^ a b c Verdelis, Nikolaos: "Le diolkos de L'Isthme", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, Vol. 81 (1957), pp. 526–529 (526)
  3. ^ a b c d e f Cook, R. M.: "Archaic Greek Trade: Three Conjectures 1. The Diolkos", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 99 (1979), pp. 152–155 (152)
  4. ^ a b c d Drijvers, J.W.: "Strabo VIII 2,1 (C335): Porthmeia and the Diolkos", Mnemosyne, Vol. 45 (1992), pp. 757ndash;76 (75)
  5. ^ a b c d Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M.: "Le Diolkos de l’Isthme à Corinthe: son tracé, son fonctionnement", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, Vol. 117 (1993), pp. 233–261 (256)
  6. ^ a b c d e Lewis, M. J. T., "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A. / Rees, J. (eds), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (2001), pp. 8–19 (11)
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), p. 10
  8. ^ a b c Werner, Walter (1997), p. 98
  9. ^ Werner, Walter: "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1997), pp. 98–119 (99 & 112)
  10. ^ Cook, R. M. (1979), p. 152 (Fn. 8)
  11. ^ a b c Cook, R. M. (1979), p. 152 (Fn. 7)
  12. ^ a b Werner, Walter (1997), p. 114
  13. ^ a b c d e f Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), p. 12
  14. ^ Although the name of the Diolkos is not explicitly mentioned in these historical sources, its use on these occasions is generally assumed as the Diolkos existed earlier and was available later. (Cook, R. M. (1979), p. 152 (Fn. 7); MacDonald, Brian R. (1986), p. 192 (Fn. 6))
  15. ^ Thucydides, “A History of the Peloponnesian War”, 3.15.1
  16. ^ Thucydides, “A History of the Peloponnesian War”, 8.7–8
  17. ^ Polybius, "Histories", 4.19.77–79
  18. ^ Polybius, "Histories", 5.101.4
  19. ^ Werner, Walter (1997), p. 113f.
  20. ^ MacDonald, Brian R.: "The Diolkos", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 106 (1986), pp. 191-195 (192)
  21. ^ a b Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 235
  22. ^ a b Werner, Walter (1997), p. 112
  23. ^ a b Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), p. 13
  24. ^ MacDonald, Brian R. (1986), p. 193
  25. ^ a b c Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), p. 14
  26. ^ a b MacDonald, Brian R. (1986), p. 195
  27. ^ a b c d e f g Werner, Walter (1997), p. 109
  28. ^ a b c Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 246
  29. ^ Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 237–246
  30. ^ Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 238 (Fig. 3)
  31. ^ Werner, Walter (1997), p. 108 (Fig. 16)
  32. ^ a b Werner, Walter (1997), p. 106
  33. ^ a b Werner, Walter (1997), p. 111
  34. ^ Cook, R. M. (1979), p. 153
  35. ^ Drijvers, J.W. (1992), pp. 76
  36. ^ Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 259–261
  37. ^ Werner, Walter (1997), p. 109 (Fig. 17)
  38. ^ Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), p. 12f.
  39. ^ Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), p. 15
  40. ^ Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 243
  41. ^ Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), pp. 237–243
  42. ^ Werner, Walter (1997), pp. 103–105
  43. ^ Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 236
  44. ^ Verdelis, Nikolaos: "Le diolkos de L'Isthme", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, (1957, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1963)
  45. ^ Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 239
  46. ^ Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993)
  47. ^ Werner, Walter (1997)
  48. ^ "Pictures showing deterioration of the Diolkos from 1960 to 2006". Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  49. ^ "Petionsite.com: Save and Restore Ancient Diolkos". Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  50. ^ All references from Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M. (1993), p. 234
  51. ^ Additional two references from Lewis, M. J. T. (2001), p. 18

Further reading

  • Cook, R. M.: "Archaic Greek Trade: Three Conjectures 1. The Diolkos", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 99 (1979), pp. 152–155
  • Drijvers, J.W.: "Strabo VIII 2,1 (C335): Porthmeia and the Diolkos", Mnemosyne, Vol. 45 (1992), pp. 75–76
  • Lewis, M. J. T., "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A. / Rees, J. (eds), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (2001), pp. 8–19 (10–15)
  • MacDonald, Brian R.: "The Diolkos", The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 106 (1986), pp. 191–195
  • Raepsaet, G. & Tolley, M.: "Le Diolkos de l’Isthme à Corinthe: son tracé, son fonctionnement", Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, Vol. 117 (1993), pp. 233–261
  • Verdelis, N. M.: "Der Diolkos am Isthmus von Korinth", Mitteilungen des deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung, Vol. 71 (1956b), pp. 51–59
  • Verdelis, N. M.: "Die Ausgrabungen des Diolkos während der Jahre 1957–1959", Mitteilungen des deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung, Vol. 73 (1958), pp. 140–145
  • Werner, Walter: "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology Vol. 26, No. 2 (1997), pp. 98–119

See also

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37°56′59.95″N 22°57′40.61″E / 37.9499861°N 22.9612806°E / 37.9499861; 22.9612806

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