A Biblical literalist chronology is a tabulation or reckoning of dates applied to events in the Bible according to the hermeneutical method of Biblical literalism.[1] The method depends upon an exhaustive knowledge of the numbers of years explicitly stated in the Scriptures, comparison to known dates of specific events, and calculation. Such chronologies have given rise to substantial controversy. Their derivation presents several methodological challenges. Absolute consensus regarding the results has not yet emerged, as various tabulations have not yielded identical or harmonized results.
A timeline or chart of biblical dates is erected according the "plain meaning" of the numbers of the years as found in the text (see Clarity of scripture). Researchers have pointed out that Biblical chronology largely uses numbers which were significant to the biblical authors: the basic numbers are 12, 40 (a "generation"), and 480 (12 generations of 40 years); other significant numbers include 10, 20, 60, and 100.[16] (SeeSignificance of numbers in Judaism.)
An historically established date in the common calendar which corresponds to the occurrence of a key biblical event known to history is required as a starting point, drawn from reliable sources outside the Bible.[note 4][17] (Seeextra-biblical sources.) Then an exhaustive knowledge of the numbers of years explicitly stated in the Scriptures and a calculator provide the detailed data. With 587BCE as an historically established base date and counting back, a chronology of the dates of the reigns of the kings and the judges, of the date of the Exodus, the dates of all the patriarchs back to the Flood, the dates of the antediluvian patriarchs and the date of the formation of Adam in the Garden of Eden, can be stated as a literal interpretation.
While biblical literalists can set out charts and timetables dating events in the Bible, different methods of harmonizing the dates of those events yield differing results,[18] even while they generally agree on the relative order of most events. Even some who accept biblical authority nevertheless argue that many numbers in the Bible are figurative, especially "40" and its multiples—thus, 480 years before the 4th year of the reign of Solomon (12 × 40 years = 480 years) is not necessarily regarded by them as a literal number having historical value. Numerical inconsistencies of dates appear between Kings and Chronicles, and attempts by both scholars and literalists to precisely date events before the reign of Solomon have not been successful. Many biblical scholars discount the Bible's chronological data entirely (Biblical Minimalism), preferring to give priority to archaeological clues in establishing biblical chronology.[19] But even they do not agree in their conclusions.[20][21] Biblical literalists who reject figurative and symbolic readings prefer to take each biblical number literally, as an expression of their belief in the Bible as the word of truth from God.[1]
Difficulties attending any literal interpretation of the chronology of the Bible can be resolved, according to the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "The literal sense is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation."[22][note 5]
Currently there is no absolute consensus on a definitive literal tabulation of dates in Biblical chronology.
Literal interpretation
Biblical literalism is the interpretation or translation of the explicit and primary sense of words and numbers in the Bible.[22][23][24]Fundamentalists and evangelicals sometimes refer to themselves as "literalists" or Biblical literalists. Sociologists also use the term in reference to conservative Christian beliefs which include not only literalism but also inerrancy.
Letterism is an hermeneutical method that derives its understanding of a text by rigorous literal analysis of words, emphasizing the "plain, explicit meaning of the biblical text".[1][25] Given that letterism arrives at its understandings by asserting the inerrant divine authority of the Biblical text, letterism sets aside potential discrepancies with external sources and looks instead only at what the Bible itself says.[1][22][note 5] As such, its derivation of a Biblical chronology relies only on the number of years explicitly stated in the Scriptures along with accurate calculations.
"Let God be true though every man be false, as it is written, 'That thou mayest be justified in thy words, and prevail when thou art judged'", (citing Psalms 51:4)
"He who does not believe God has made him a liar".
A coherent literalist viewpoint methodologically rejects any findings and conclusions of scholars and archaeologists that do not agree with the plain, explicit meaning of the biblical text.[1][20][22] In response to the controversy, J. Philip Hyatt, a scholar in the field of biblical studies and Professor of Old Testament at Vanderbilt University, and for 20 years Director of Graduate Studies in Religion, wrote:
"The modern Bible reader who consults books about the Bible can profit from paying attention to archaeological discoveries. Yet, he should always remember that an archaeological fact—that is, a specific item discovered by the archaeologist—is sometimes subject to widely varying interpretations. In no other area of biblical study is it so important to seek out the mature, experienced interpreters. Field archaeologists, who do the work of exploration and digging, are sometimes good interpreters of what they and others discover, but sometimes they are not. In some cases experienced 'arm-chair archaeologists,' who study carefully the results of many field archaeologists, are the best interpreters."[20]: 41
Methodological problems
Several problems arise in deriving a letterist chronology.
Translations and versions
The text of the specific manuscript or translation version of the Bible that is consulted can affect the calculation and tabulation of the resulting numbers of the years in a literalist chronology. For example, see the following for textual comparison of the number of years of the reign of Saul:
The numerical and chronological notes in various annotated editions of the Bible and Bible commentaries are dissimilar. For example, archaeological datings of the site of Jericho by John Garstang and Kathleen Kenyon do not agree.[26] Historical and archaeological datings of the whole of the ancient biblical period in chronologies by William F. Albright and Edwin R. Thiele do not agree.[27]William G. Dever challenges both of these datings.[28] Conservative literalist Bryant G. Wood argues for the historicity of the Biblical account in support of Garstang's findings,[29] and Woods' researches have in turn been criticised.[30]
Differing key base historical dates affect the calculation and tabulation of the resulting numbers of the years in a literalist chronology. The key base historical date for the 11th year of Zedekiah and the destruction of the Temple varies according to different historians: 587 BCE (William F. Albright);[31] 586 BCE (Edwin R. Thiele);[32] or 581 BCE (Bernard Grun).[33] Advances in archaeological methods and theories have prompted scholars to modify particular biblical chronologies, such as the Ussher chronology.[34] Examples are noted below in the Biblical literalist table. (See1537–1505 Conquest of Canaan in the Table.)
Annotations
The dates assigned to biblical events in annotated Bibles do not always correspond to the arithmetical reckoning found in the text of the Bible.[note 8][35] The dates which follow are taken from annotations to the Douay-Rheims Bible (1899 American edition) and the Scofield Reference Bible (1917). "Ante C" is an abbreviation of Latin "Ante Christi", meaning, "Before Christ", "B.C.". "A.M." is an abbreviation of Latin "Anno Mundi", meaning, "Year of the World". Several examples of apparent discrepancies between calculations based on the annotations and those based on the text are observed:
The year Joseph was born (Genesis 30:23–25) is annotated a as Ante C. 1746 (1746 BC). The year Joseph was 16 years old (Genesis 37:1–2) is annotated x and y as Ante C. 1728 (1728 BC). This is an interval of 18 years. The Douay-Rheims Bible says 16 years old, the King James Version says 17 years old (Genesis 37:2).[note 9]
The year Gideon delivered Israel (Judges 6:11–14) is annotated k as Ante C. 1245 (1245 BC). The land had rest 40 years (Judges 8:28), and then Abimelech began to rule over Israel (Judges 9:1–6 and 9:22). The year Abimelech began to rule (Judges 9:6) is annotated u as Ante C. 1235 (1235 BC). This is an interval of 10 years. The Bible says 40.
The year the Ark of the Covenant was captured (1 Samuel 4:1) is annotated b as Ante C. 1116. It was in the land of the Philistines 7 months, was returned to Israel, and placed in the house of Abinadab at Kiriath-jearim for 20 years (1 Samuel 7:1–2).[note 10] The year the ark was brought up out of the house of Abinadab by David after 20 years (2 Samuel 6:2–4) is annotated t as A.M. 2959, in the same year annotated y as A.M. 2960, Ante C. 1044 (2 Samuel 7:1). This is an interval of 72 years (1116 – 1044 = 72). The Bible says 20.
King David reigned 33 years over all Israel and Judah, beginning with the annotated date Ante C. 1044. The year King David died (1 Kings 2:1–2 and 2:10–12) is annotated p as A.M. 2990, Ante C. 1014 (1014 BC). This is an interval of 30 years. The Bible says 33.
The 4th year of the reign of King Solomon, after David died, (1 Kings 6:1) is annotated k as A.M. 2992, Ante C. 1012 (1012 BC) —"the 480th year after the children of Israel came out of the land of Egypt". The year of the Exodus (Exodus 12:37–40) is annotated g as A.M. 2513, Ante C. 1491 (1491 BC). This is an interval of 479 years (1491 – 1012 = 479). The Bible says 480 (1 Kings 6:1).[note 11]
The year the Temple was burned by Nebuzaradan (2 Kings 25:8–9) is annotated i as A.M. 3416, Ante C. 588 (588 BC). The interval between the annotated date of the 4th year of Solomon Ante C. 1012 and the annotated date of Nebuzaradan Ante C. 588 represents a period of 424 years (1012 – 588 = 424). The Bible gives a total count of 431 years (plus 4 to Solomon's 1st year = 435 years),[note 12] from 2 Kings 25:2–9 back to 1 Kings 6:1 (1018 – 587 = 431).
Apparent textual inconsistencies
Letterism does not necessarily lead to complete agreement upon a single interpretation for a given passage. A generation, for example, can be 100 years, 80, 70, 60, 40, 35, and fewer than 20 years, although 40 years is the traditional meaning of a biblical "generation".[note 13][36][37]
A literalist reading of the explicit text of the Bible presents the reader with difficulties that can only be resolved by a careful reading of various bible texts, collation of data from these texts, and by careful critique of the occasional slightly misleading translations of the original Hebrew (Historical-grammatical method). Martin Anstey provided an important literalist analysis of how apparent contradictions in the bible chronology can be resolved by correlating data from various Bible translations and texts.[note 1]Edwin Thiele provided additional corroborating historical-cultural background on varying ancient methods of recording chronologies of kings and nations, co-regencies, overlapping reigns, differences in calendars, uses of "rounded numbers"—data vital for an undistorted understanding of the ancient authors' actual literal meaning (the true "literal sense").[27][31][32] At first reading, the Bible chronology has a number of apparent contradictions, such as:
According to 2 Kings Jehoiachin was 18 years old when he began to reign (2 Kings 24:8). According to 2 Chronicles he was only 8 years old when he began to reign (2 Chronicles 36:9).
The text of 2 Kings 15:30 states that Hoshea slew Pekah the 20th year of the reign of Jotham son of Uzziah. According to 2 Kings 15:32–33 Jotham son of Uzziah reigned 16 years.
In 1 Kings 15:27–28 and 15:33 Baasha of Israel reigned 24 years, beginning the 3rd year of Asa of Judah. But according to 2 Chronicles 16:15 Baasha was still reigning the 36th year of Asa, giving Baasha a reign of (at least) 33 years.
Rehoboam king of Judah and Jeroboam king of Israel began to reign the same year (1 Kings 12:1–20). The text plainly shows the reign of Jeroboam began a short time after Rehoboam began to reign. According to the plain reading of 1 Kings, Rehoboam reigned 17 years (1 Kings 14:21). According to the plain reading of 1 Kings, Rehoboam died the 18th year of King Jeroboam (1 Kings 14:29–15:1).
Moses states plainly (Deuteronomy 2:14) that the Israelites wandered 38 years in the wilderness until the whole generation of those (except Caleb and Joshua) who were 20 years old and upward had perished. According to the Book of Numbers the people had been sentenced to wander 40 years after the spies had been sent out from the wilderness of Paran and had brought up an evil report to the people when they returned (Numbers 14:33–38). They then went from the wilderness of Paran to Kadesh (Numbers 12:15–13:3 through 20:1). The text does not state that the journey from the wilderness of Paran to Kadesh spanned 2 years. The Book of Joshua states explicitly that Caleb and the spies were sent out from Kadesh-barnea to spy out the land and then the evil report was brought up to the people (Joshua 14:7). But a literal reading of Numbers 12:15–13:3 and 20:1 places them in the wilderness of Paran at the time of the evil report, after which they came to Kadesh.
Using the known historical date of the destruction of the Temple in 587 BCE as a starting point and reckoning the literal number of years back in accordance with the literal numbers of the regnal years, ages of individuals, generations, events, stated in the numerous biblical passages pertaining to them (see table below), to the resulting literal reckoning of the 4th year of Solomon's reign ("1018"),[note 12] and then calculating back 480 years (1 Kings 6:1) the date is 1498 BCE for the Exodus. Reckoning no years (zero 0) between the year Eli began judging Israel (1 Samuel 4:18) and the year Samson died (Judges 16:29–31: Judges 17—1 Samuel 4), and reckoning no years (zero 0) between Cushan-Rishathaim and Joshua in the Book of Judges (Judges 2:8–3:8), and counting all the years explicitly stated in all the numerical texts from the First Book of Kings, chapter 5, back through the Book of Exodus, chapter 12—between Solomon's 4th year and the year the people of Israel came out from the land of Egypt—the minimum literal total count according to those texts is 559 years and the date is 1577 BCE for the Exodus[note 14] (see table below).
Add an arbitrarily estimated 40 (?) years for the unknown generation after Joshua's death and the date is pushed back to 1617 BCE (?). Add another arbitrarily estimated 40 (?) years (total 80) for 2 unknown generations (Judges 2:10) and the date for the Exodus is pushed further back to 1657 BCE (?). Add about 2 (?) years more (Judges 19–21) for the outrage at Gibeah (Judges 19:30), for the period of the calling out of the men of Israel for the war with Benjamin and the months that followed (Judges 20:8–11 and 20:46–48), for the smiting of Jabesh-gilead (Judges 21:5–12), for the subsequent taking of wives for the survivors during the yearly feast of the LORD at Shiloh and repair of the cities afterward (Judges 21:16–23)—about 2 (?) years between the death of Samson and the year when Eli began to judge Israel—and the date for the Exodus is pushed further back to about 1659 BCE (?). None of these added years arbitrarily inserted into the period between Joshua and Eli can be drawn from the text of the Bible alone; they are purely speculative and have no historical value. Add another 10 years, at minimum, to the same period, as represented in the Book of Ruth (1:4), and the date for the Exodus is pushed further back to 1669 BCE, or earlier. This purely speculative total additional 82 (?) years moves the formation of Adam in the Garden of Eden back to 4328 BCE (see table below).[note 12][note 14][note 15]
These apparent contradictions can only be resolved by careful collation and correlation of data from the various extant Bible texts by an historical-grammatical method of exegesis, adhering to the rules of sound interpretation.[note 5]
Joshua and the period of the conquest
The age of Joshua in the wilderness of Paran when he was sent to spy out the land (Numbers 14:28-30) is determinative for the chronological date of the Exodus as reckoned by literal letterism. Taking the 1st year of Solomon as 1022 BCE and tabulating the numbers of years in the text back to 1505 BCE as the year Joshua died,[note 12][note 14] and taking the age of Joshua when he died at the age of 110, and estimated as 40 (?) years old when he spied out the land of Canaan, and as 78 (?) years old (40 + 38) when he crossed over the Jordan River with the people, the conquest of Canaan under Joshua during his life would have occupied an estimated period of 32 (?) years. Such conclusions are purely speculative and arbitrary. The age of Joshua when he was sent with Caleb and 10 other leaders to spy out the land (Numbers 13:1–16) and when he crossed over the Jordan River (Joshua 1:1–2) cannot be drawn from the Bible alone; the biblical text only states that Joshua was 110 years old when he died. The Bible does not state the number of years of the conquest of Canaan, which according to the text was completed during the lifetime of Joshua "and the land was subdued before them" (Joshua 18:1–10; Judges 2:6).
If he was 20 when sent out, then 90 years had passed when he died in 1505. Plus 2 years back to the Exodus = 92 years before 1505 = 1597 BCE. 20 years old + 38 years in the wilderness (Deuteronomy 2:14) would make him 58 years old when Israel crossed over the Jordan. The conquest would have occupied 72 years until 1505 BCE when he died 110 years old.
Exodus 33:11 states clearly that Joshua was a "young man" (KJV, RSV) when Moses at Sinai received the Law written on tables of stone.[note 16] However, Joshua was one of the "leaders" in Israel (Numbers 13:2-16). Tradition does not support a 72-year conquest with a reading that interprets the age of a leader of a house in Israel as only 20 years old or less than 30. "From the beginning of Israelite history, the elders were the leaders of the various clans and tribes."[38] If he was 40 when sent out, then 70 years had passed when he died in 1505. Plus 2 years back to the Exodus = 72 years before 1505 = 1577 BCE. 40 years old + 38 years in the wilderness would make him 78 years old when Israel crossed over the Jordan. The conquest would have occupied 32 years until 1505 BCE when he died.
If he was 60 when sent out, then 50 years had passed when he died in 1505. Plus 2 years back to the Exodus = 52 years before 1505 = 1557 BCE. 60 years old + 38 years in the wilderness would make him 98 years old when Israel crossed over the Jordan. The conquest would have occupied 12 years until 1505 BCE when he died.
If he was 70 when sent out, then 40 years had passed when he died in 1505. Plus 2 years back to the Exodus = 42 years before 1505 = 1547 BCE. 70 years old + 38 years in the wilderness would make him 108 years old when Israel crossed over the Jordan. The conquest would have occupied 2 years until 1505 BCE when he died. The Book of Joshua states that "Joshua made war a long time with all those kings" (Joshua 11:18-23). A literal reading of this text does not support a 2-year conquest. Moreover, a literal reading of Deuteronomy 2:14 and Joshua 14:10 indicates a period of seven (7) years: Caleb 85 years old – (40 years old + 38 years) = 7 years.
Given the established fact that the Bible does not give the age of Joshua when he was sent to spy out the land of Canaan, the date of the Exodus according to a literal reading of the letter of the text varies according to the interpretation of "a long time" and any age a literalist reader arbitrarily assigns to Joshua as "most probable" when, as a leader of a house in Israel, he was sent out from the wilderness of Paran to spy out the land. An exact date for the Exodus according to a literal reading of the letter of the text of the Bible alone does not seem possible, only a general indication of a date some time around 1577 to 1567 BCE for the Exodus, and allowing for a purely arbitrary additional speculative adjustment of ± 10 years gives a broader general indication of a potential date for the Exodus at some time around 1586 to 1556 BCE.[note 13]
According to Bob R. Ellis and E. Ray Clendenen, those who reckon the 4th year of Solomon as 966/5 BCE[note 4] and accept the traditional date of the Exodus at about 1445 BCE, based on a literal interpretation of 1 Kings 6:1, place the conquest at about 1400–1350 BCE, over a period of about 50 years, but those who prefer archaeological data over biblical data commonly date the Exodus around 1286 BCE (understanding 1 Kings 6:1 and similar passages as figurative) and they place the conquest at about 1240–1190 BCE, again a period of about 50 years.[39] A literal interpretation of the death of Joshua at the age of 110 at the end of the conquest about 1350 BCE as supposed, with the traditional date of the Exodus as 1445 BCE, makes Joshua ("a leader of a house in Israel") 15 years old[note 16] at the time they spied out the land, 25 years younger than Caleb at age 40 (Joshua 14:6-7), and 53 years old when Israel crossed over the Jordan, making the period of the conquest 57 years; the ages of 15 and 53 for Joshua still obtain when the date of his death is 1190 BCE at the end of the conquest with the date of the Exodus as 1280 BCE. He would have been 50 years old when Caleb was 85 (Joshua 14:6–10).
According to Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. and E. Ray Clendenen, assuming a literal interpretation of 1 Kings 6:1, and taking 966 BCE as Solomon's 4th year,[note 4] the Exodus occurred in 1446 BCE, "and the conquest lasted about seven years ending around 1400 BCE."[19] If Joshua died 110 years old at the end of the conquest about 1400 BCE as supposed, that makes him about 66 years old in 1444 BCE, 2 years after the Exodus, when Caleb was 40 and they were sent to spy out the land. Age 66 plus 38 years (Deuteronomy 2:14) would make Joshua 104 years old when Israel crossed into Canaan, and the year would be 1406 BCE, at the beginning of the conquest. Joshua would then have died 6 years later 110 years old 1400 BCE. According to Joshua 13:1–14:11, Joshua was "old and advanced in years" seven (7) years after the beginning of the conquest, when Caleb was 85 years old. If Joshua was only 65 years old (20 years younger than Caleb) he would not be "old and advanced in years". After blessing Caleb, Joshua then apportioned the land to each of the tribes, and then came the subsequent controversy and threat of war over the "altar of great size" built afterward by the Reubenites, the Gadites and the half-tribe of Manasseh (Joshua 22:6–33). And then according to Joshua 23:1 Joshua was still alive "a long time afterward". The same term "old and well advanced in years" was used when he died at the age of 110. The phrase "old and advanced in years" is used in the Bible to describe Abraham over 100 years old and Sarah over 90 years old, also Job at 140, King David before he died at 70, and the elders among the people and among the priests of Israel.[38][note 17]
Example of literalist chronology
The following tabulation of years and dates is according to the literal letter of the text of the Bible alone. Links to multiple translations and versions are provided for verification. For comparison, known historically dated events are associated with the resultant literal dates. Dates according to the famous Ussher chronology appear in small type italics "A.M." (Latin: "Year of the World"), "Ante C." (Latin: "Before Christ").[35] In ancient Israel a part year was designated as the previous king's last year and the new king's 1st year.[19] The arithmetic can be checked by starting at the bottom of the table with the date of the destruction of the Temple in 587 and adding the number of years in the Scriptures (books of the Prophets and Chronicles through Genesis) back up to the beginning.[note 12][note 14][note 15] Dates with events in italics appearing in small type for historical comparison are according to Bernard Grun's The Timetables of History.[33] For the period after 587 BCE known historical dates are used as referents. Biblical source texts for stated numbers of years are referenced and linked. Reference sources are the RSVCE,[40] The New American Bible[41]The Timetables of History by Bernard Grun,[33] and the Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (2003).[36]
This table is not definitive. It is a column of known numbers in the Bible sequentially added together. It is not a Biblical harmony. It is not the result of any kind of research and is not here presented as research. The details and dates of events in tables derived by the method of mechanical arithmetic tabulation from the text of the Bible alone are not relied upon by scholars and historians as representing established historical facts.[19][note 18]SeeProoftext. Problems are briefly noted. This table is an illustrative demonstration only. It is not a recognized reliable resource for a Bible Quiz or a paper.
Adam to the Flood 4246—2590 BC
Before the Common Era (BC)
Event
Bible texts
4246 Ante C. 4004
The year Adam was formed.[note 15]He lived 930 years (4246–3316).
Sargon, first king of Akkadian dynasty, defeats Lugalzaggisi, and creates a vast Semitic empire in Mesopotamia, and calls himself "King of the Four Quarters" (–2350 to –2100).[33]
The testing of Abraham. "...now I know that you fear God, seeing you have not withheld your son, your only son, from me."
Isaac was between the ages of 12 and 20 years, a "lad" (KJV, RSV), a "boy" (NRSV, REB, NAB, NJB), a youth.[note 20] He was old enough and strong enough to carry on his shoulders the wood for the burnt offering.
The year Sarah died at Hebron. She was 127 years old (2287–2160). Abraham bought the field and the cave in Machpelah. The first possession of the promised land in Palestine.
Isaac was 37, Ishmael 51, Abraham 137, Eber 322, Shelah 392, Arpachshad 427, Shem 527 years old.
Joseph was 30 years old when he was brought out of prison and interpreted Pharaoh's dreams. He entered Pharaoh's service, was placed over the whole land of Egypt, and was married to Asenath.
Joseph settled his father and his brothers in Egypt, "and gave them a possession in the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of Rameses", also called Avaris, and Qantir.[note 21]SeeLand of Goshen.
Joseph was 39, Israel 130 years old.
5 more years of famine remained (2007–2002).
Israel and his sons, families and servants, dwelt in Egypt 17 years (2007–1990).
The people of Israel dwelt in the land of Egypt a total of 430 years (2007–1577).
The year Israel died. He was 147 years old (2137–1990).
Joseph was 55 years old (2045–1990).
Genesis 47:28
1977
30 years after Israel entered Egypt, the Egyptians began to enslave the Israelites. Abraham's "posterity would be aliens in a land belonging to others, who would enslave them and ill-treat them 400 years" (1977–1577 BCE).
Joseph was 69 years old (2046–1977). He lived another 41 years.
Ephraim and Manasseh were about 39, Levi about 74 years old.
Hammurabi, king of Babylonia, reunited the kingdom (18th century B.C.).[33] Hammurabi began reign in 1848, 1792, or 1736 B.C.[45]—he reigned 1792 BC to 1750 BC according to the middle chronology, 1728 BC to 1686 BC according to the short chronology.
Amraphel cannot be equated with Hammurabi or any other king of whom records are available from the ancient Near East.[45]
The Code of Hammurabi c. 1750, has much in common with the other cuneiform collections of Ur-Nammu (21st century B.C.), Lipit-Ishtar (19th century B.C.), the kingdom of Eshnunna (c. 1800 B.C.), the Hittite laws (16th or 15th century B.C.), the Middle Assyrian laws (15th or 14th century B.C.), and the Neo-Babylonian laws (7th century).[45]
Egypt prospered under the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty and conducted extensive trade with all the nations of the Near East.[46]
Merneferre Ay, 1700–1677 BCE, reigned 23 years, 18 months, and 18 days.[47]
Moses was born, and hidden 3 months. —interval between death of Joseph 2936 BCE and birth of Moses 1657 BCE = 299 years literal count.[note 15] (2936 – 1657 = 299 years.)
Aaron was 3 years old and was not affected by Pharaoh's decree. It is possible, by no means certain, that Miriam was older than her brother Aaron. Compare Exodus 2:4-8.
The year Joshua was born (if like Caleb he was 40 years old when he was sent forth as a leader with the spies from the wilderness of Paran to spy out the land 2 years after the Exodus).
1577. The Exodus—"And at the end of 430 years...all the hosts of the LORD went out from the land of Egypt." Exodus 12:40. 1577 BCE is the resultant date of the Exodus according to the literal counting of 559 years before Solomon laid the foundation of the Temple in the 4th year of his reign (in 1018 BCE by literal reckoning 1018 + 559 = 1577).[note 12][note 14]
Joshua was 38 (?), Moses 80, Aaron 83 years old. (The age of Miriam is not given, Exodus 2:1-4, Numbers 20:1)
The Wilderness Period to the Conquest of Canaan 1576—1505 BC
Before the Common Era (BC)
Event
Bible texts
1576 Ante C. 1490
The Tabernacle was erected 1 year after the people of Israel came out of the land of Egypt, in the first month, on the first day, at the beginning of the second year.
Joshua was 39 (?), Moses 81, Aaron 84 years old.
According to Exodus 33:11, Joshua was a "young man", not yet 20 years old.[note 16]
Moses sent out Hoshea/Joshua the son of Nun and 11 other leaders[38] in Israel from the wilderness of Paran to spy out the land of Canaan. Caleb was 40 years old. At their report the congregation cried out, and God decreed the people would wander in the wilderness 40 years.
Joshua was 40 (?), Moses 82, Aaron 85 years old.
Joshua 14:7 plainly says that Caleb and the brethren who went up with him to spy out the land were sent from Kadesh-barnea, not the wilderness of Paran. Deuteronomy 2:14 plainly says that the time from their leaving Kadesh-barnea until the entire generation, the men of war, had perished was 38 years, "as the LORD had sworn to them." (1575–1537)
Miriam died (age not given) 1537 (?)—see the interval of time inNumbersbetween the death of Miriam and the death of her brother Aaron. Numbers 20:1–33:38.
The 40th year after the people of Israel had come out of Egypt (1577–1537). Aaron died. He was 123 years old (1660–1537). Moses also died. He was 120 years old (1657–1537).
Joshua was 78 (?) years old (40 + 38) (if he like Caleb was 40 years old when he was sent forth with the spies from the wilderness of Paran to spy out the land.)
The conquest of Canaan, a period of 32 (?) years, beginning with Jericho (1536). The Bible does not state the number of the years of the conquest of Canaan during the lifetime of Joshua, only that Joshua was 110 years old when he died.[note 5]
The year Joshua died.[note 14] He was 110 years old (1615–1505). "...Israel served the LORD all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders who outlived Joshua..." (Joshua 24:30-31).
Joshua added statutes and ordinances to the Book of the Law. Joshua 24:25-26. See Deuteronomy 34:1-9.[note 23]
A plain, explicit number representing the remaining days of life of the elders who outlived Joshua cannot be drawn from the text of the Bible; the Bible does not tell the period of time elapsed between the burial of Joshua and the day when "all that generation also were gathered to their fathers." Judges 2:10.[note 5]
"...the people served the LORD...all the days of the elders who outlived Joshua...and there arose a generation after them, who did not know the LORD...."
A plain, explicit meaning for the exact period of "the days of the elders" and of the "generation after them" cannot be drawn from the text of the Bible alone;[note 13] the Bible text does not explicitly state the number of days of that generation. The "300 years" of Judges 11:26 is not useful here in determining the period of that generation and does not correspond to the literal numbering of the years stated plainly in all the chronological texts of the Bible tabulated from David back to Joshua, from 2 Samuel through Joshua (Jephthah 1186 BCE back to Cushan-Rishathaim 1505 BCE: 1505–1186 BCE = 319 years).[note 14] The "450 years" of Acts 13:19-20 for the period of the judges exactly corresponds to the literal tabulation of the years in this table, from 1505 BCE, after Joshua, to 1055 BCE, when David began to rule over all Israel and Judah (1505 – 1055 = 450), but it does not correspond to the literal tabulation of the years of the "judges until Samuel the prophet" 1115/1075 BCE. (1505–1115 BCE = 390 years, and 1505–1075 BCE = 430 years.) This text too is not useful in determining the number of days and length of years of the 2 generations after Joshua.[note 5]
"...whenever the judge died, they turned back and behaved worse than their fathers..." (Judges 2:18-19)
1498. The Exodus—"And at the end of 430 years...all the hosts of the LORD went out from the land of Egypt." 1498 BCE is the resultant date of the Exodus according to the literal counting of 480 years (1 Kings 6:1) before Solomon laid the foundation of the Temple in the 4th year of his reign (1018 BCE by literal reckoning 1018 + 480 = 1498 BCE).[note 12][note 24]
Othniel, son of Kenaz the younger brother of Caleb, judged Israel.
The land had rest for 40 years 1497–1457, then Othniel died. Judges 3:9-11.
The ages of Othniel and Kenaz are not given in the Bible.
1486. Moses and Joshua defeat Sihon king of the Amorites. (Jephthah in the Book of Judges calls them "Ammonites".) See Judges 11:4-28 and Numbers 21:21-31. Jephthah (1186–1180 BCE) declared that 300 years before him (in 1486 BCE literal count[note 14]), Israel took the land of Sihon king of the Ammonites, from the Arnon to the Jabbok and from the wilderness to the Jordan, and during 300 years (1486–1186) the Ammonites had not taken it back. Moses and Joshua took the land of Sihon before Israel had crossed over the Jordan and taken Jericho.[note 25][note 13][note 5]
Ruth 1:1 Ante C. 1298. A period of famine began (10 years, c. 1183—c. 1173).[note 27] Elimelech and Naomi, with their two sons Mahlon and Chilion went into the country of Moab. Elimelech died, and Naomi and her sons remained there about 10 years (Ruth 1:4). Mahlon and Chilion took Moabite wives, Ruth and Orpah.
c. 1172. The famine in Israel ended. Orpah went back to her people. Naomi returned with Ruth, and Boaz took Ruth as his wife. c. 1172 Obed, son of Boaz, was born about this time—the 1st generation, c. 40 years 1172–1132—the 1st of 2 generations (80 years, literalist estimate) before the birth of David 1092.[note 27]
Israel was in the hand of the Philistines 40 years. This can be divided into 2 periods:
1155–1135. First, Israel was in the hand of the Philistines 20 years 1155–1135. c. 1132 Jesse, son of Obed, was born about this time, 2nd generation, c. 40 years 1132–1092, literalist estimate, before the birth of David 1092.[note 27]
1135–1115. (beginning Ante C. 1137→) Then Samson judged Israel 20 years during the latter half of the same period "in the days of the Philistines" (1135–1115 BC).
for the outrage at Gibeah and the sending out of the messengers
for the calling out of the men of Israel for the war with Benjamin and the months that followed
for the smiting of Jabesh-gilead afterward
for the subsequent taking of wives for the survivors during the yearly feast of the LORD at Shiloh and diplomatic negotiation and settlement of grievance
Eli was 59 years old (1174–1115), and he judged Israel 40 years (1115–1075).
Hannah brought her son Samuel to Eli, as soon as the child was weaned (about 2 to 5 years old), to "lend him to the LORD".
Samuel grew and the LORD was with him. "And all Israel from Dan to Beersheba knew that Samuel was established as a prophet of the LORD...And the word of Samuel came to all Israel."
Eli was 68 years old (1173–1105) and judge of Israel 40 years (1115–1075). Saul was anointed king over Israel by Samuel the prophet "when Samuel became old" and Samuel was judge over Israel. 1 Samuel 6–10. Saul reigned 42 years (1105–1063/2), according to 1 Samuel 13:1.[note 28]
According to 1 Samuel 4:10-10:24, Eli the high priest and judge at Shiloh died 98 years old, when the ark of the covenant was captured by the Philistines, after he had judged Israel 40 years—Eli seems to have died years before Samuel anointed Saul king over Israel. A literal reckoning of a 42-year reign has Saul anointed king 30 years before the ark was captured by the Philistines and Eli died, 50 years before David brought the ark up to Jerusalem after it had been in the house of Abinadab 20 years.[note 5][note 29]
1 Samuel 4:10-18 1 Samuel 6:1-3 1 Samuel 7:2 1 Samuel 8:1 1 Samuel 8:22 1 Samuel 9:25-10:1 1 Samuel 10:17-26 1 Samuel 13:1 1 Samuel 14:52
1103
Eli was 70 years old and judge of Israel 40 years (1115–1075). 1 Samuel 4:15-18. Saul son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, was anointed king over Israel by Samuel the prophet "when Samuel became old" and Samuel was judge over Israel. 1 Samuel 6–10. Saul reigned 40 years (1103–1063/2), according to Acts 13:21,[note 30][note 31] and according to some readings of 1 Samuel 13:1.[note 28]
A literal reckoning of the beginning of the 40-year reign of Saul according to Acts 13:21 gives a resultant date of 1103 BCE:[note 29] —beginning of David's reign over all Israel 1055 BCE[note 12][note 14] —beginning of David's prior 7 year 6 month reign over the house of Judah 1063/2 (1055 BCE + 7 years 6 months = 1063/2 BCE) —beginning of Saul's 40-year reign over Israel 1103 (1063/2 BCE + 40 years = 1103 BCE) SeeTranslations and versions: variant readings of the reign of Saul
1 Samuel 4:8-10 1 Samuel 6:1-3 1 Samuel 7:2 1 Samuel 8:1 1 Samuel 8:22 1 Samuel 9:25-10:1 1 Samuel 10:17-26 1 Samuel 13:1 Acts 13:21
1095
Eli was 88 years old and judge of Israel (1115–1075). Saul was anointed by Samuel the prophet "when Samuel became old" and Samuel was judge over Israel. 1 Samuel 6–10. Saul reigned 32 years (1095–1063/2) according to 1 Samuel 13:1.[note 28]
According to 1 Samuel 4:10–10:24 Eli the high priest and judge over Israel died 98 years old when the ark of the covenant was captured by the Philistines, and after he had judged Israel 40 years—Eli seems to have died years before Samuel anointed Saul king over Israel. A literal reckoning of a 32-year reign has Saul anointed 20 years before the ark was captured by the Philistines and Eli died (1075), 40 years (1095–1055) before David removed it from the house of Abinadab and brought it up to Jerusalem 8 years after Saul died (32 + 8 = 40).[note 5][note 29]
1 Samuel 6–10
1092
The year David son of Jesse was born.[note 12][note 14][note 5] Eli was 82 years old and judge of Israel (1115–1075). Saul had been king over Israel 13 years (1105–1092), 11 years (1103–1092), 3 years (1095–1092).
The ark of the covenant was captured by the Philistines. Eli died. He was 98 years old (1173–1075); he had judged Israel 40 years (1115–1075). The ark remained in the land of the Philistines 7 months.
David was 17 years old (1092–1075).
Samuel judged all Israel after Eli died. 1 Samuel 4:10–7:17
Saul had remained king over Israel 30 years (1105–1075), 28 years (1103–1075), 20 years (1095–1075), and he continued to reign 12 more years (he reigned a total of 42 years 1105–1063/2, 40 years 1103–1063/2, 32 years 1095–1063/2).[note 29][note 28][note 5]
Samuel judged Israel 11 years after Eli died (1075–1064).
He made his sons judges (Ante C. 1096).
He anointed Saul king (Ante C. 1095). 1065. Saul was one (1) year old when he began to reign[51] (1066–1065 BCE).[note 32] He reigned 2 years (1065–1063/2). 1 Samuel 13:1.[note 28][note 5]
When Saul was rejected Samuel anointed David as king (Ante C. 1070).
David slew Goliath (Ante C. 1062), and entered Saul's service. Psalm 151
Saul began to fear David, and sought some way to kill him. Jonathan made a covenant with David. David fled into the wilderness (Ante C. 1060). Saul killed the priests at Nob.
Samuel died (c. 1064) (Ante C. 1057). Saul searched for David, to kill him.
The year Saul was slain on Mount Gilboa with his sons. He died 72 years old, 70 years old, 32 years old, 3 years old, age unknown.[note 32][note 28][note 5]Compare Acts 13:21, 1 Samuel 7:2; 13:1 and 2 Samuel 5:4-6:11[note 31]
Solomon began to build the house of the LORD the 4th year of his reign (1022–1018).
From the end of the reign of Zedekiah and the burning of the temple, back to the 4th year of the reign of Solomon, the literal biblical total is 431 years.[note 12]
The 4th year of Solomon (1018) according to a literal reading of 1 Kings 6:1 was the 480th year after the people of Israel came out of the land of Egypt, giving the date of the Exodus as 1498 BCE (431 + 480 = 911 years, 1498–587 BCE).[note 12]
The literal biblical sum of the years 2 Chronicles through Exodus from the 4th year of Solomon (1018) back to the Exodus is 559 years, giving the date of the Exodus as 1577 BCE (431 + 559 = 990 years, 1577–587 BCE).[note 14]
Rehoboam reigned 17 years (982-965), and he died. He was 58 years old (41 + 17) (1022–964)
977. The 5th year of the reign of Rehoboam. Shishak king of Egypt came up against Jerusalem: "he took away everything".
965. According to 1 Kings 14:21 Rehoboam died the 17th year of his reign. 964. According to 1 Kings 15:1 he died the 18th year of the reign of Jeroboam, who had begun his own reign shortly after the beginning of Rehoboam's reign.
Ahaziah reigned 1 year, and he died. According to 2 Kings, he was 23 years old when he died (22 + 1). According to 2 Chronicles, he was 43 years old when he died (42 + 1).
824. The 15th year of Amaziah's reign. Jeroboam II (reigned 824–783) restored the borders of Israel according to the word of the LORD which he had spoken by Jonah son of Amittai. 2 Kings 14:23-25.
Hosea's prophetic ministry began during the reign of Jeroboam II.[52]
Nineveh, capital of Assyria, flourished 800–612 BCE.[53]
Jonah son of Amittai was sent to Nineveh to cry against it.
Hosea continued his prophetic ministry during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah (c. 783–726).[52]
Amos the prophet from Judah exercised his ministry during the reign of Uzziah beginning c. 767–762 BCE. "In the days of Uzziah...2 years before the earthquake." Amos 1:1; Zechariah 14:5 Traces of a major earthquake (dated 765–760 BCE) have been found at Hazor.[54]
c. 761–758. During the reign of Menahem over Israel (reigned 771–761), Tiglath-pileser/Tiglath-pilneser/Pul king of Assyria came against the land. According to current historical dating based on Assyrian chronology, Tiglath-pileser reigned 745–727 BCE.[note 4][55]
Jotham reigned 16 years, and he died. He was 41 years old (25 + 16).
Hosea, Jonah, Amos, Isaiah, Micah were prophets.
758. The year of Isaiah's vision of the LORD in the Temple, and his call. Isaiah 6:1-8 "Here am I! Send me!" Isaiah exercised his prophetic ministry during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah (c. 759–697 inclusive).[note 34] He was told to prophesy until the land was utterly desolate and men were moved far away, which did not occur until the beginning of the Exile (587).[56]
c. 742. Micah of Moresheth exercised his prophetic ministry during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah (c. 742–697 inclusive). Micah was a contemporary of Isaiah, Hosea and possibly Amos.[57]
Ahaz reigned 16 years, and he died. He was 36 years old (20 + 16).
Hosea, Jonah, Amos, Isaiah, Micah were prophets.
733. The 9th year of the reign of Ahaz. Isaiah foretold the sign of Immanuel when Rezin king of Syria and Pekah king of Israel came up to wage war against Jerusalem and besieged it.
732. Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser/Tiglath-pilneser/Pul king of Assyria asking for rescue from Rezin and Pekah.
Pul carried away the Reubenites, Gadites and the half-tribe of Manasseh into exile.
Hezekiah reigned 29 years, and he died. He was 54 years old (25 + 29).
Hosea, Jonah, Amos, Isaiah, Micah, Joel were prophets.
726. Joel was the name of a Levite who helped Hezekiah cleanse the Temple 1st year of his reign (726).
725–722. Shalmaneser V king of Assyria (726–722 BCE) came against Hoshea king of Israel (who reigned 730–721), and besieged Samaria 3 years (725–722). The position of the Book of Joel among the early prophets in the Hebrew canon is considered evidence for an early date.[58]
"A nation from the north", "the northerner", had come up against the land in a time of drought like a plague of locusts, "their appearance like the appearance of horses, like war horses they ran, as with the rumbling of chariots, like a powerful army drawn up for battle." Joel 2:4-5. An unprecedented plague of locusts was a metaphor and symbol of the Day of the Lord.[58] (Tobit 1:1-2, 11-13; Judith 2:20; Joel 1:6-12, 17-20; 2:2-11; Nahum 3:15-17.) Joel 1:17-20 does not mention locusts, only "seed shrivels under the clods", "fire has devoured the pastures", "the water courses are dried up", a time of severe drought. The drought is also mentioned in Jeremiah 14:1-6 and Amos 7:1-6. The LORD plainly told Amos the plague would not be locusts: "This shall not be.".[54]
Tobit and his fellow Naphtalites were taken captive into the land of the Assyrians to Nineveh into exile. Tobit 1:2-3.
722. Sargon II king of Assyria began to reign 722. He sent his commander-in-chief to take Ashdod. Sargon finished the destruction of Samaria begun by his brother Shalmaneser V. Sargon was succeeded by his son Sennacherib. Tobit 1:18.
714. The 14th year of Hezekiah (714), Sennacherib king of Assyria took all the fortified cities of Judah, and came against Jerusalem. The angel of the LORD slew 185,000 in the camp of the Assyrians, and Sennacherib went back to Nineveh. Sennacherib commanded the death of Tobit. Tobit 1:21-24.
c. 704. Merodach-baladan (reigned 721–711 and 704) sent a gift and envoys to Hezekiah. During the reign of Sargon II, Merodach-Baladan was little more than a puppet of Assyria, answering to Sargon.[59]
681. The 16th year of Manasseh. Sennacherib king of Assyria was killed by his sons (681 BCE).[60] 2 Kings 19:37; 2 Chronicles 32:21; Tobit 1:21. Esarhaddon then reigned (681–669 BCE).[61] Ahikar immediately interceded for Tobit, who then became blind. Tobit was 56 years old (DR), 58 years old (RSV), 62 years old (NRSV, REB, NAB, NJB) when he became blind. Tobit 1:22-2:10; 14:2.
Prophets warn that the LORD will cast off Jerusalem like Samaria and the house of Ahab. 2 Kings 21:10-15. The LORD brought upon them the commanders of the army of the king of Assyria.
673. After 8 years (681–673) Tobit was cured of his blindness. He was 64 years old, 66 years old, 68 years old. Tobit 14:2.
Manasseh was taken with hooks, bound, and brought to Babylon. He repented, and was brought back to Jerusalem, returning from exile. He then purified the house of the LORD. 2 Chronicles 33:10-16; Judith 4:3.[note 35] Prayer of Manasseh
Nahum exercised his prophetic ministry sometime after 650 BCE, before the death of Manasseh (642). Nahum 3:8-10 refers to the destruction of the Egyptian capital No-amon or Thebes (663) which had already occurred.[62]
628. The 12th year of the reign of Josiah, he purged the land, and broke down the idols and altars of the Baals.
627. The 13th year of Josiah son of Amon (627), the word of the LORD came to Jeremiah (1:2). The year Tobit died 112 years old (NRSV, REB, NAB, NJB).[note 36]
623. The 17th year of Josiah (623). The year Ezekiel was born (in 593 BCE he was 30 years old, the 5th year of Jehoiachin's exile[64]). Ezekiel 1:1.
"I am rousing the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation." Habakkuk 1:6-11. Habakkuk was a prophet of the late 7th century before the fall of Nineveh. In the Book of Habakkuk the Babylonians are called Chaldeans, so named for the region from which their rulers came.[65]
622. The 18th year of the reign of Josiah (622). The Temple was repaired, the Book of the Law was found, and the Jews were gathered (2 Kings 23:4-25; 2 Chronicles 34:3-18, 33; 35:17-19; Judith 4:1-3[note 35]). Josiah in Jerusalem was king over Israel, "and made all who were in Israel serve the LORD their God". He gathered Template:Hebrewqahal[note 37] the elders, priests and people together, and preached the book of the law to all the people both great and small, exhorting them to join in the covenant with the LORD (2 Kings 23:15-23; 2 Chronicles 34:29-33; 35:18; Ecclesiastes 1:12).[note 38] The Pesach that year surpassed all those celebrated in the days of the judges and the days of all the kings of Israel and Judah. 2 Kings 23:15-23. Josiah was told all the evil that would befall the people and all the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem after his death. 2 Kings 22:15-20; 2 Chronicles 34:23-28. The Book of Ecclesiastes. "Vanity of vanities, saith the Preacher [Qoheleth], vanity of vanities; all is vanity."[note 39]1:2
612. The 28th year of Josiah (612). Nineveh the Assyrian capital fell to Nabopolassar and Cyaxares.[66] Nahum 2.
609. The 39th year of Josiah (609). 3 years after the fall of Nineveh, Pharaoh Neco/Necho/Nechoh, Second Pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, began to reign (reigned 609–594 BCE). When Neco advanced toward Carchemish, Josiah met him in battle and was killed (609).[67]
Eliakim/Jehoiakim reigned 11 years, and he died. He was 36 years old (25 + 11).
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Zephaniah and Daniel were prophets.
609. Jeremiah 26. Jeremiah spoke in the Temple, and was threatened with death.
Pharaoh Neco seized Gaza as a base. Jeremiah 47:1.
606. The 3rd year of Jehoiakim. Daniel 1:1-5. Jehoiakim and the treasures of the Temple were taken to Babylon, and Daniel, Hananiah, Azariah, Mishael, young men, were taken with them. (see below —598. The 11th year of the reign of Jehoiakim. Nebuchadnezzar bound Jehoiakim in fetters to take him to Babylon and carried off with him part of the vessels of the Temple. 2 Chronicles 36:4-7.)
In Babylon, young Daniel saved Susanna from the false witness of the elders. Daniel 13:41-51, 60-62.
605. The 4th year of Jehoiakim. Jeremiah called Baruch, who wrote on a scroll the words of the LORD. Jeremiah 46:2. Pharaoh Neco was defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchadnezzar. Nabopolassar died. The 1st year of Nebuchadnezzar II king of babylon (605). He reigned 43 years, 605–562 BCE. Jeremiah declared the decree of the LORD that peoples will serve the king of Babylon 70 years. (Reckoning from this date 605 – 70 years = 535 BCE.) Nebuchadnezzar defeated Pharaoh Neco at Carchemish, completing Babylon's conquest of Palestine. 2 Kings 24:7; Jeremiah 46:2.
603. The 6th year of Jehoiakim (603). Daniel 1:5, 17-20. Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon found Daniel, Hananiah, Azariah and Mishael ten times better than all magicians and enchanters in his kingdom. He gave them Babylonian names, "Belteshazzar", "Shadrach", "Meshach" and "Abednego".
601. The 8th year of Jehoiakim (601). Darius the Mede was born (he was 62 years old in 539).
599. The 10th year of Jehoiakim (599), the 7th year of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah 52:28. The king of Babylon carried away 3,023 persons. (See below 591 BCE—3,023 persons carried away "In the 7th year" of Ezekiel 20:1.)
598. The 11th year of the reign of Jehoiakim, the 7th year of Nebuchadnezzar. According to 2 Kings 24:6 Jehoiakim died (598) and slept with his fathers. According to 2 Chronicles 36:4-7 Nebuchadnezzar bound Jehoiakim in fetters to take him to Babylon and carried off with him part of the vessels of the Temple. (see above —606. The 3rd year of Jehoiakim. Jehoiakim and the treasures of the Temple were taken to Babylon. Daniel 1:1-5.)
The Bible does not say that Nebuchadnezzar released Jehoiakim during or after his 3rd year to allow him to return to Jerusalem and then took him away a second time to Babylon in his 11th year—such a conclusion, however reasonable, is speculative only and cannot be drawn solely from a plain reading of the strict letter of the text of the Bible alone according to the method of letterism, which only presents an apparent inconsistency, but which entirely accords with the grammatico-historical method of exegesis which a priori presumptively takes both texts as reliable, consistent and historically factual, and as such, provides an illustrative example of the difference in the two literalist methodologies.[note 1] See Inference.
Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah reigned 3 months and ten days. Isaiah, Jeremiah, Zephaniah and Daniel were prophets.
Ezekiel was taken to Babylon along with King Jehoiachin and 10,000 others, including political and military leaders and skilled craftsmen.[64]Mordecai was one of the captives taken to Babylon with Jeconiah. Esther 11:4.
According to 2 Kings 24:6-17 Jehoiachin was 18 years old when he was carried away to Babylon. According to 2 Chronicles 36:9-10 he was 8 years old.
Mattaniah/Zedekiah was 21 years old (598) when he was made king of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. He reigned 11 years, until he was 32 years old (587).
Isaiah, Zephaniah, Jeremiah and Daniel were prophets.
598. In the beginning of the reign of Zedekiah (598/7) Jeremiah put yoke-bars on his neck, and warned the envoys of Edom, Moab, Sidon, and the court of Judah. Jeremiah 27:1-3. Hananiah broke the bars, and died the same year. Zedekiah sent Elasah and Gemariah to Babylon to Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah sent word by them to the elders and to the priests that 70 years must be completed (598/7 – 70 = 528/7 BCE). Zephaniah reported to Jeremiah the false prophesy from Babylon,[63] and Jeremiah declared Shemaiah of Nehelam in Babylon to be a false prophet, to be punished by God. Jeremiah 29:1-3, 8-10, 24-32.
597. The siege of Jerusalem in the 9th year of Nebuchadnezzar, the 2nd year of Zedekiah.
594. The 4th year of Zedekiah king of Judah, the 12th year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar over the Assyrians in Nineveh. Nebuchadnezzar made war against King Arphaxad/Cyaxares who ruled over the Medes in Ecbatana. Judith 1:1-6.
593. The 5th year of Zedekiah king of Judah, the 5th year of the exile of Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah. "in the 5th year at the time when the Chaldeans took Jerusalem and burned it with fire", Baruch read to Jeconiah son of Jehoiakim "this book". Baruch took the vessels that had been carried away from the Temple to return them to the land of Judah. Offerings could still be made on the "altar of the Lord our God", and prayer for "Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, and for the life of Belshazzar his son". Baruch 1:1-12. Ezekiel's vision of the LORD and his call at the age of 30, the age priests normally were inducted into office (593).[64] Ezekiel 1:1; Numbers 4:30.
592. The 6th year of Zedekiah king of Judah, the 6th year of Jehoiachin (592). Ezekiel's vision of the appearance of a man clothed in linen. Ezekiel 8:1.
591. The 7th year, the word of the LORD when the elders came to query Ezekiel. Ezekiel 20:1. 3,023 persons were carried away by Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah 52:28. (See above 599 BCE "the 7th year of Nebuchadnezzar" Jeremiah 52:28—6 years before the call of Ezekiel in "the 5th year of the exile of King Jehoiachin" 593 BCE Ezekiel 1:2.)
589. The 9th year, 10th month, 10th day. "The king of Babylon has this day laid siege to Jerusalem." 2 Kings 23:31–24:1; Ezekiel 24:1-2. The 9th year of Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem. Jeremiah 39:1. Zephaniah was the priest whom Zedekiah sent to Jeremiah asking him to pray for the nation.[63] Jeremiah 21:1-7; 37:3-21. Pharaoh Hophra began his 19-year reign in Egypt (589–570 BCE). At the beginning of his reign he tried to drive the Babylonian army away from its siege of Jerusalem.[68] Jeremiah 37:5; 46:17. Jeremiah was imprisoned.
589/8. Jeremiah continued in prison, in the court of the guard, then the princes lowered him into the cistern to die. Ebed-melech interceded for Jeremiah, drew him out, and Jeremiah was put back into the court of the guard. Jeremiah 38.
588. The 10th year of Zedekiah, the 17th year of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar overthrew and utterly destroyed Arphaxad, and plundered Ecbatana. Judith 1:13-15. Ezekiel prophesied against Pharaoh and all Egypt. Ezekiel 29:1-2; 2 Kings 24:7. Jeremiah in prison bought the field. Jeremiah 32:1-15. Zedekiah freed the slaves, but they were taken back. Jeremiah 34:8-11
The 11th year of Zedekiah, the 18th year of Nebuchadnezzar. Isaiah, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Daniel and Ezekiel were prophets.
587. Nabuchodonosor/Nebuchadnezzar sent his general Holofernes to take revenge on the whole territory of Cilicia, Damascus, Syria, Moab, Ammon, all Judea, and Egypt. Judith 2:1. The Jews had only recently returned from the captivity (2 Chronicles 34-35), and all the people of Judea were newly gathered together, and the sacred vessels and the altar had been newly consecrated after their profanation. Judith 4:1-3.[note 40]
Judith beheaded Holofernes, the Assyrian army was dismayed and they fled. Judith 14:18–15:2. "no one ever again spread terror among the people of Israel in the days of Judith or for a long time after her death." Judith 16:25. Ezekiel declared that Pharaoh of Egypt will be brought down. Ezekiel 31:1.
The 11th year of Zedekiah, the 4th month, the wall was breached. Zedekiah was captured, his sons and the nobles were put to death (Jeremiah 39:2-9). Zephaniah, the Second Priest, was put to death[63] (Jeremiah 52:24-27). Zedekiah, 32 years old, was blinded and taken to Babylon. The Temple was burned, and the people taken into exile. 832 persons were taken captive. Jeremiah 52:29.
Jeremiah prophesied "until the captivity of Jerusalem in the 5th month." Jeremiah 1:3; 52:29.
Esau/Edom rejoiced and gloated over the destruction of Jerusalem, looted the city, cut off the fugitives, and handed over the survivors. Lamentations 4:21-22; Obadiah 10-14.[note 41]
Gedaliah was appointed ruler of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon.
587 BCE marked the beginning of the 70 years of serving the king of Babylon according to Jeremiah 25:8-12 (70 years = 587–517 BCE). The 19th year and 1st year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar (587 BCE).
The Babylonian Captivity to the Decree of Cyrus 586—539 BC
Before the Common Era (BC)
Event
Bible texts
586 Ante C. 588
The 19th year and 2nd year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. The 12th year of the exile of Jehoiachin/Jeconiah/Coniah. Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel and Ezekiel were prophets.
Ezekiel 32:1. Lamentation over Pharaoh king of Egypt.
Jeremiah 52:12-16. Nebuzaradan burned the house of the LORD and every great house, the army broke down all the walls around Jerusalem. Isaiah 6:13; Jeremiah 37:8-10; 2 Kings 25:8-9.
Gedaliah was appointed governor of Judah. 2 Kings 24:22; Jeremiah 40:1-12.
Daniel 2. In the 2nd year Daniel interpreted the dream of the great image. Daniel was made ruler over the whole province of Babylon.
Daniel 3. Nebuchadnezzar made an image of gold. Hananiah, Azariah, Mishael (Shadrach, Meshach, Abednego) were thrown into the furnace. They came out unharmed, and were promoted.
The book of Lamentations was written about this time by an eyewitness—similarities between Lamentations and Jeremiah in tenor, theology, themes, language, and imagery favor authorship by Jeremiah.[69]
The 24th year and 7th year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar. Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel and Ezekiel were prophets.
Johanan son of Kareah and the forces with him fought against Ishmael, but Ishmael escaped. Johanan led the people to Egypt against God's word, to escape Babylonian retaliation, and forced Jeremiah to go with them.[70]
The end of Isaiah's prophetic ministry.[note 34] Isaiah 6:9-13.
Jeremiah in Egypt foretold the capture and exile of Pharaoh Hophra (reigned 589–570 BCE)
Tobit, 158 years old (RSVCE, KJV),[note 36] told his son to "leave Nineveh, because what the prophet Jonah said will surely happen", and then he died. (The destruction foretold by Jonah, described by Nahum and Zephaniah, occurred in 612 BCE.)[53]
Nebuchadnezzar II burns Jerusalem (-581).[33] Historians do not agree precisely on the date Jerusalem was burned and destroyed by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II, who ended the reign of Zedekiah king of Judah (see section "Archaeological dates" above; also Zedekiah and Siege of Jerusalem[note 42]). Taking Bernard Grun's proposed 581 BCE[33] as the key historical base date in a literalist table moves forward by 6 years all the dates above in this table, as well as all those dates below which are arithmetically calculated therefrom. Given that a secure historial date has not been established, the choice of a particular base date from among the range of various dates proposed by archaeologists, scholars and historians is substantially arbitrary.
The 27th year of the exile of Jehoiachin/Jeconiah (598–571). The word of the LORD to Ezekiel that Nebuchadnezzar will be given the land of Egypt and its wealth for his army as recompense for his labor for the LORD.
From the reign of Neriglissar (560) to the 1st year of Cyrus (539). Daniel was prophet.
560. Neriglissar, king of Babylon 560–558
c. 559. Cyrus organized the Persians into an army, revolted, defeated his father Astyages and grandfather Cambyses I, and assumed the throne (reigned 559–530 BCE).[73]
555. The year Tobiah, son of Tobit, died 99 years old, 82 years after the death of his father (637).[note 36] Tobit 14:16 (DR).
553. Belshazzar son of Nabonidus was made co-regent, and given charge of the defense of Babylon (553–539).[71] The Bible plainly says that Belshazzar was the son of Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel 5:1, 10-11, 22; Baruch 1:11-12. The names of Neriglissar, Labashi-Marduk and Nabonidus are not in the Bible.
553. The 1st year of Belshazzar (553). Daniel's vision of 4 beasts and the Ancient of Days.
550. The 3rd year of Belshazzar (550). Daniel's vision of the ram and the he-goat. Gabriel interpreted the vision.
539. The last year of Nabonidus, and of Belshazzar.
The 17th year of Nabonidus, and the 14th year of Belshazzar. Belshazzar's feast. Daniel interpreted the writing on the wall. Belshazzar proclaimed Daniel/Belteshazzar the 3rd ruler in the kingdom.
539. The Persian Cyrus II the Great entered Babylon without a fight. Belshazzar was slain, and Darius the Mede, son of Ahasuerus, a Mede, received the kingdom 62 years old (601–539).[73] Daniel 5:30; 8:3-4. Daniel 6:28 seems to indicate that Cyrus and Darius ruled simultaneously.[74]
539. The 1st year of Darius the son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede. Daniel 9. Daniel's prayer regarding the 70 years of Jeremiah. Gabriel came and revealed that 70 weeks of years are decreed. Daniel 9:1-2, 21-25. The identity of Darius cannot be drawn from the text of the Bible alone; the Bible does not say that Darius the Mede and Darius I Hystaspes are different persons, the text does not say they are the same. (see below—522. The 1st year of Darius the son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede.)
539. The 1st year of King Cyrus (reigned 559–530 BCE). The Decree of Cyrus (539) freed the captives Babylon had taken. The first group of about 50,000 exiles, led by Sheshbazzar prince of Judah, departed and came to the house of God at Jerusalem.[75] The literal reading of Ezra 1-7 does not say that Cyrus issued a decree that the city of Jerusalem was to be restored and rebuilt, but only the house of God. After their arrival in Jerusalem, Sheshbazzar was replaced by Zerubbabel, a leader of the people together with Jeshua/Joshua the high priest.[76]
539. Daniel continued until the 1st year of King Cyrus, and prospered during the reign of Darius and and the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Daniel was a companion of Cyrus the king, and the most honored of his friends. Daniel 1:21; 6:28; 14:1-2.
Cyrus the Great died 4 December 530. He was succeeded by Cambyses II son of Cyrus (reigned 530–522).
527. The year that Tobiah, son of Tobit, died 117 years old, 100 years after the death of his father (627).[note 36] "Before dying he rejoiced over Nineveh's destruction" (612 BCE), and he praised God. Tobit 14:14-15 (NRSV, REB, NAB, NJB).
522. Cambyses was killed. Following the death of Cambyses II, Darius I Hystaspes the Great seized power (reigned 18 years, 522–486).[77]
522. The 1st year of Darius the son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede. Daniel 9. Daniel's prayer regarding the 70 years of Jeremiah. Gabriel came and revealed 70 weeks of years are decreed. The identity of Darius cannot be drawn from the text of the Bible alone; the Bible does not say that Darius the Mede and Darius I Hystaspes are different persons, the text does not say they are the same. (see above—539. The 1st year of Darius son of Ahasuerus, by birth a Mede.)
During this period work on the Temple had stopped (538–520), until the 2nd year of Darius (520).
18 December 520, 2nd year, 9th month, 24th day of the month. Haggai's 3rd and 4th messages. Haggai 2:10-23
15 February 519, 2nd year, 11th month, 24th day of the month. Zechariah's night visions. Zechariah 1:7–6:8. Literally, "the going forth of the word of the LORD to restore and rebuild Jerusalem" (Daniel 9:24-27) was announced by Zechariah in Jerusalem in the 2nd year, 11th month, 24th day of the month. Zechariah 1:14-17. 70 weeks of years = 490 years, from 519 to 29 BCE. SeeHerod the Great.
Zechariah was also a leading priest at the time of Joiakim's high priesthood, possibly the same as the prophet. Nehemiah 12:16.[79]
The 4th year of Darius the king (reigned 522–486 BCE). Zechariah and Obadiah were prophets.
518. Zechariah continued his prophetic ministry. He removed 3 corrupt leaders. The people rejected his leadership, and weighed out 30 pieces of silver as his wages. Zechariah chapters 7–14.
517. The end of the 70 years of serving the king of Babylon (587–517 BCE) according to Jeremiah 25:8-13. The Jews began rebuilding the city, finishing the walls and repairing the foundations. Ezra 4:12
The Book of Obadiah historically belongs to the early postexilic period at the end of the 6th century (c. 525–501).[80] The Nabataeans infiltrated Edom and Moab from a homeland southeast of Petra (which later became their capital).[81] Indications that this was already happening at the time the book was written can be seen in Obadiah 1, 6-7
"...and in the reign of Ahasuerus in the beginning of his reign they wrote an accusation against the inhabitants of Jerusalem." Ezra 4:6.
The Hebrew name Ahasuerus is usually identified with Xerxes I who reigned 486–465/4, known in Esther as "Ahasuerus" and as "The Great King Artaxerxes", son of Darius the Great and grandson of Cyrus the Great.[82]
The 2nd year of the reign of "Artaxerxes the Great"/Ahasuerus.
Mordecai's dream. Esther 11:2–12:6.
Mordecai reported the plot of eunuchs Gabatha and Tharra to kill Artaxerxes. Haman son of Hammedatha in great honor with the king, sought injury to Mordecai and his people because of the eunuchs. Esther 11:2–12:6.
483. The 3rd year of the reign of Ahasuerus (483), Vashti was deposed. Beautiful young virgins were sought, and Hadassah/Esther was made queen. Esther 1:1-3, 12-21; 2:1-4, 8, 16-17.
The 7th year of Ahasuerus (reigned 486–465/4 BCE).
Ezra went up from Babylon to Jerusalem, from the 1st month to the 5th month.
At his word, from the 9th month to the 1st month (479–478), the Jews separated from the people of the land and put away their foreign wives and children.
474. The pur ("lot", plural purim, "lots") was cast before Haman in the 1st month. An edict was issued in the king's name to annihilate all the Jews on the 14th day of the 12th month (473 BCE).
Haman was exposed, and executed. Mordecai was given Haman's position. He issued a decree authorizing the Jews to defend themselves and destroy those who hated them.
473. They smote their enemies, and the days of Purim were fixed.
The year that Tobiah, son of Tobit, died 127 years old, 110 years after the death of his father (581).[note 36] "But before he died he heard of the destruction of Nineveh" (612 BCE), and he rejoiced.
Tobit 14:14-15 RSVCE, KJV
c. 460–445
The Book of Malachi is not dated by a reference to a ruler or specific event.
Internal evidence (Malachi 1:6-11; 2:1-3; 3:1, 10) as well as its position in the canon favors a postexilic date. The social and religious problems Malachi addressed reflect the situation in Ezra 9 and 10 and Nehemiah 5 and 13, suggesting dates either before Ezra's return (c. 460) or just before Nehemiah's second term as governor (Nehemiah 13:6-7) (c. 435).[83]
"...and in the days of Artaxerxes..." (Artaxerxes I who reigned 465–424)
Bishlam, Mithredath and Tabeel, and Rehum and Shimshai, obtained in writing from Artaxerxes king of Persia authorization to make a decree that the men rebuilding the wall and the city of Jerusalem cease.
They went in haste and by force and power made them cease.
Hananiah came to Susa. He told Nehemiah, cup-bearer to the king, that the wall of Jerusalem was broken down and the gates had been burned with fire.
Nehemiah obtained a decree from the king that Jerusalem be rebuilt. He went to Jerusalem, and inspected the wall. Nehemiah 1:1–2:15. 490 years from the decree of Artaxerxes (445 BCE) through Nehemiah to the governors of province Beyond the River that "the city may be rebuilt", according to Daniel 9:25, gives a date of AD 45 CE (445 + 45 = 490) during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius (reigned AD 41–54 CE).
The wall was rebuilt in 52 days and finished in the 7th month, 1st day. Nehemiah 6:15.
Nehemiah the governor gave his brother Hanani and Hananiah, governor of the cattle, charge over Jerusalem. Nehemiah 7:2.
The people were enrolled by genealogies. 1 in 10 volunteered to live in Jerusalem.
When the 7th month came Ezra read the Law before the Water Gate, to an assembly of 42,360 persons and 7,337 servants. Nehemiah 7:5, 66-67; 8:1-2. The 24th day of the 7th month the Israelites separated themselves from all foreigners. Nehemiah 9:1-2.
See: Book of Job The author of the book of Job is not known; it was composed some time between the 7th and 5th centuries B.C.[85] "There was a man in the land of Uz..."
"Then his officers began to rule, each in his own place. They all put on crowns after his death, and so did their sons after them for many years; and they caused many evils on the earth" (323–175). 1 Maccabees 1:8-9. Compare Daniel 8:5-7; 11:3-44.[note 43][87]
c. 309–300. (Ante C. 187) A letter was sent to Onias I the high priest from Arius I king of the Spartans (reigned 309–265 BCE)[89] stating that the Spartans and the Jews are brothers. 1 Maccabees 12:7, 19-23.
The house of God was renovated, the Temple was reinforced, the wall was built with turrets for the Temple precincts, and the reservoir was dug vast like a sea.
"The 4th year of the reign of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Dositheus, who said that he was a priest and a Levite, and Ptolemy his son brought to Egypt the...Letter of Purim..."
The specific identities of this particular Ptolemy and his co-regent Cleopatra together with the period of their reign cannot be drawn from the Bible. Two dates have been proposed for the 4th year of the reign of the otherwise unspecified Ptolemy and Cleopatra. The New American Bible annotation suggests that Ptolemy refers to Ptolemy XII Auletes and Cleopatra to Cleopatra V Tryphaena, and the date referred to as 78–77 B.C. during their reign; the Douay-Rheims Bible (1899 American edition) suggests in its footnote annotation to Esther 11:1 "Ante C. 177" (177 BC). This date falls within the reign of Ptolemy VI Philometor, who ruled jointly with his mother, Cleopatra I Syra, until her death in 176 BC.
During the high priesthood of Onias III 196–175 BCE.
Seleucus, the king of Asia (187–175), sent Heliodorus "a collector" to Jerusalem to take the treasures of the Temple. When he entered he was struck down and flogged. Onias interceded in prayer with an offering for his life, he lived, and with his forces went back to the king.
175. Antiochus Epiphanes began to reign in the 137th year of the kingdom of the Greeks (175 BCE). 1 Maccabees 1:10; Daniel 7:8.
175. Onias III, son of Simon II, high priest (196–175 BCE), was deposed by Jason (175 BCE), who had obtained the office of the high priesthood by corrupt means. 2 Maccabees 4:7.
Jason introduced Hellenism, and built a Greek gymnasium in sight of the Temple.
Menelaus obtained the high priesthood by outbidding his brother Jason. He was high priest until his execution in 162 BCE.[95] 2 Maccabees 4:1-14.[96] "Jason and his company revolted from the holy land and the kingdom and burned the gate and shed innocent blood." 2 Maccabees 1:7-8; 4:26.
174. Onias III "the prince of the covenant" was murdered by Andronicus at the request of Menelaus. 2 Maccabees 4:23-35; Daniel 11:22.
174–170. Antiochus invaded Egypt with a strong force, engaged Ptolemy in battle, captured the fortified cities, and plundered Egypt. 1 Maccabees 1:16-19; Daniel 7:24; 11:22.
169. (Ante C. 170) Antiochus returned in the year 143 (169 BCE). He went up against Israel, and entered the Temple. He murdered many. 1 Maccabees 1:20-24; Daniel 11:28.
168. Antiochus sent his 2nd expedition into Egypt. 2 Maccabees 5:1;[97] Daniel 11:29-30.
167. (Ante C. 168) A chief collector of tribute came from Antiochus. He killed many, plundered the city, burned it, and fortified the city of David (the citadel) against the Jews. By decree of the king Judaism was forbidden. Daniel 7:25; 8:10-12.
Early in December, 167 BCE,[98] on the 15th day of the month Chislev in the year 145, "they erected a desolating sacrilege upon the altar of burnt offering." 1 Maccabees 1:29-54; Daniel 11:31; 12:11.
In Modein, Mattathias slew the king's officer who was monitoring the sacrifices, tore down the pagan altar, fled with many, and revolted. They received "a little help" when the Hasideans joined him. 1 Maccabees 2:15-44; Daniel 11:33-35.
166. Mattathias died in the 146th year of the kingdom of the Greeks (166 BCE). 1 Maccabees 2:70.
Judas Maccabeus took command and led the revolt against the Greeks (166–160 BCE). 1 Maccabees 3–9; 2 Maccabees 5:27-15:37; Daniel 11:32-35; 12:1-3.
165. The Greek generals Apollonius and Seron were crushed by Judas. Antiochus sent Lysias to wipe out Judea and Jerusalem, and crossed over the Euphrates river in the 147th year (165 BCE) to collect revenues from Persia. Lysias, Ptolemy, Nicanor and Gorgias, also Philip, Timothy and Bacchides, were repeatedly defeated in battle (165–164). 1 Maccabees 3:10-4:35; 2 Maccabees 8:8-9:1
164. The Dedication of the Temple (Hanukkah) in the 148th year (164 BCE). 1 Maccabees 4:36-56; 2 Maccabees 10:1-9; Daniel 12:12.
The death of Antiochus IV to the death of Judas Maccabeus.
163. Antiochus the king died in the 149th year (163 BCE) in the mountains somewhere between mount Zion "the glorious holy mountain"[99] and "the sea" in Persia.[note 44] He had departed from Ecbatana and was driving furiously toward Jerusalem when he was struck down. SeeZagros Mountains. 1 Maccabees 6:1-16; 2 Maccabees 9:1-28; Daniel 7:26; 11:44-45; 12:11.
Antiochus Eupator was set up as king (163 BCE). He invaded Judea. Antiochus ordered Menelaus executed. He was thrown into a tower full of ashes and suffocated to death. 2 Maccabees 9:1-10, 28; 13:1-8.
162. Judas besieged the citadel in the 150th year (162). 1 Maccabees 6:19-20.
161. (Ante C. 162) Demetrius began to reign in the 151st year (161–152 BCE). Alcimus presented a large bribe to Demetrius, and incited the king against Judas. Demetrius set up Alcimus as high priest. Nicanor was sent to kill Judas, but he hesitated. When Judas avoided him, Nicanor threatened to destroy the Temple.
Judas' vison of the high priest Onias and the prophet Jeremiah. Nicanor was slain in battle and beheaded (161 BCE). "And from that time the city has been in the possession of the Hebrews." 1 Maccabees 7:1, 26-35, 43-50; 2 Maccabees 14:3-4, 12-14; 15:12-16, 25-37
160. Bacchides and Alcimus encamped against Jerusalem in the 152nd year (Ante C. 161). Judas Maccabeus was slain at the Battle of Elasa (160 BCE). 1 Maccabees 9:1-18.
Jonathan Apphus accepted the leadership and took the place of his brother Judas (160/159 BCE). 1 Maccabees 9:28-31.
159. (Ante C. 160) Alcimus gave orders to tear down the wall of the inner court of the sanctuary in the 153rd year (159 BCE). He was stricken with paralysis and died in great agony. 1 Maccabees 9:54-56.
152. (Ante C. 153) In the 160th year (152 BCE) Alexander Epiphanes landed and occupied Ptolemais. Demetrius marched out to meet him, and was killed. Alexander appointed Jonathan Apphus, brother of Judas Maccabeus, high priest. October 23–30, 152 BCE, Jonathan discharged his office as high priest.[100] 1 Maccabees 10:1-21.
150. Ptolemy set out from Egypt with his daughter Cleopatra, came to Ptolemais in the 162nd year (150 BCE), and gave her to Alexander in marriage. Jonathan was given honor, and clothed in purple. 1 Maccabees 10:55-62.
147. (Ante C. 148) Demetrius son of Demetrius came from Crete, and appointed Apollonius governor of Coelesyria. He came against Jonathan with a large force in the 165th year (147 BCE), and was defeated. 1 Maccabees 10:67-85.
145. (Ante C. 145) Alexander was beheaded by Zabdiel the Arab, Ptolemy died 3 days later, and Demetrius became king in the 167th year (145 BCE). 1 Maccabees 11:14-19.
143. (A.M. 3861, Ante C. 143) Trypho treacherously shut up Jonathan and his men in the city of Ptolemais and slew them. 1 Maccabees 12:39-48. In the reign of Demetrius in the 169th year (143 BCE), the Jews in Jerusalem wrote to the Jews in Egypt in the critical distress which came upon them in the years after Jason and his company had revolted from the holy land and burned the gates and shed innocent blood. 2 Maccabees 1:7-8.
142. (Ante C. 143) In the 170th year (142 BCE) the yoke of the Gentiles was removed from Israel. The 1st year of Simon, great high priest and commander and leader of the Jews. The land had rest all the days of Simon. 1 Maccabees 13:41-42; 14:4.
141. (Ante C. 142—141) The citadel was cleansed, and the Jews entered it with praise in the 171st year (141 BCE). Simon made his son John commander with his residence at Gazara. 1 Maccabees 13:51-53
140. (Ante C. 140) The 3rd year of Simon the great high priest, he agreed to be high priest, and commander and ethnarch of the Jews and priests and protector. Demetrius marched into Media to make war against Trypho in the 172nd year (140 BCE). Arsaces sent a commander, who defeated and took him. 1 Maccabees 14:1-3; 14:47.
The 5th year of Simon the great high priest to the death of John Hyrcanus son of Simon.
138. (Ante C. 139→138) In the 174th year (138 BCE), Antiochus son of Demetrius I and younger brother of Demetrius II besieged Dor, and shut Trypho in.
Antiochus broke off relations with Simon, Trypho escaped, and Cendebeus invaded Judea. Judas and John, sons of Simon the high priest, took Simon's place at the head of the army and defeated Cendebeus. 1 Maccabees 15:10-14, 37-41; 16:1-10.
134. (Ante C. 135→133) In the 177th year, Ptolemy son of Abubus and son-in-law of the high priest killed Simon and 2 of his sons at Dok. John Hyrcanus son of Simon killed the assassins sent against him and became high priest of an independent Judea in the 177th year (134 BCE). Daniel 7:27; 1 Maccabees 16:14-24.
132. The 38th year of the reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon[101] Book of Sirach/Ecclesiasticus: "I arrived in Egypt in the 38th year of the reign of King Euergetes, and while there, I found a reproduction of our valuable teaching. I therefore considered myself in duty bound to devote some diligence and industry to the translation of this book." Sirach Foreword (Sirach 1:1).
124. (Ante C. 124) The Jews in Jerusalem and Judea in the 188th year (124 BCE) sent a letter to the Jews in Egypt that they are to see that the feast of booths is kept. 2 Maccabees 1:9.
104. John Hyrcanus died. John was ruler and high priest from 134 BCE until his death in 104.[102]
The Book of Wisdom has been dated to about a hundred years before the coming of Christ, written by a devout Jew as an admonition to his fellow rulers and kings.[103]
The Book of Judith—"The unknown author composed this edifying narrative of divine providence at the end of the second or the beginning of the first century B.C."[104]—c. 100 BCE. "During the life of Judith and for a long time after her death, no one again disturbed the Israelites." Judith 16:25 (NAB).[note 45]
Esther 11:1—the 4th year of Ptolemy and Cleopatra as possibly 78–77 BC
Before the Common Era (BC)
Event
Bible texts
177 or 78–77
"The 4th year of the reign of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Dositheus, who said that he was a priest and a Levite, and Ptolemy his son brought to Egypt the...Letter of Purim..."
"...To Aristobulus,[note 46] who is of the family of the anointed priests, teacher of Ptolemy the king...Having been saved by God out of grave dangers we thank him greatly for taking our side against the king. For he drove out those who fought against the holy city."
2 Maccabees 1:13-16 relates the death of Antiochus X Eusebes and his men, during the course of a military expedition, as locked inside the temple of Nanea in Persia, stoned to death and beheaded by the priests.[note 47] (This Antiochus should not be confused with the earlier Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who failed to take Elymais and its temple, and afterward died of parasitic infection and decay in the mountains of Persia. 1 Maccabees 6:1-16; 2 Maccabees 9:1-10, 28.[note 48])
Pompey besieged Jerusalem, and took it (63 BC). End of Jewish independence.
Literalist difficulties in tabulating the chronology of the kings of Israel and Judah
The literal reading of the letter of the text of the Bible according to the method of letterism presents a particular difficulty when the comparative chronology of the kings is calculated, correlated and tabulated from the Bible alone.
Numerical totals of the reigns
Reference texts for Biblical data presented here are the RSVCE and KJV. Bible links are provided for verification and for multiple comparisons of different translations and versions of the Bible. All resulting figures are numerically derived from cited texts in published Bibles using plain arithmetic. The data presented here should not be regarded as definitive. This is not research, nor is this presented as research. This is an illustrative demonstration of simple mechanical arithmetic only, using known numbers in the Bible.
A literal count of the years of the chronology of the kings of Israel and Judah gives the following totals for the Divided Monarchy:
Kingdom of Judah (to the 12th year of Hezekiah) 267/273 years.
Kingdom of Israel (to their exile) 241 years 7 months (242 years)/250 years.
By a literal count according to the Bible, the Kingdom of Israel was dissolved and the people taken into exile by Shalmaneser the 241st/242nd, 250th, 267th, 273rd year after Solomon 982 BCE.[note 12]
982 BCE – 241/242 years = 741/740 BCE
982 BCE – 250 years = 732 BCE
982 BCE – 267 years = 715 BCE
982 BCE – 273 years = 709 BCE
For the period of the Divided Monarchy, most historians follow either of the older chronologies established by William F. Albright or Edwin R. Thiele, or the newer chronologies of Gershon Galil and Kenneth Kitchen. See Kingdom of Israel (Samaria).
Jehoram king of Israel and Ahaziah king of Judah were killed at the same time. Hoshea was king of Israel during the reign of Hezekiah king of Judah. Precise historical dates for the reigns of the kings of ancient Israel and Judah cannot be given. A general chronology is presented here without dates.
Biblical numberings of the years of the kings
In the following table the apparent internal numerical inconsistencies in all the numerical textual data relating to each ruler, together with the resultant numerical differences in reckoning the length and the beginning and ending dates of his reign, are carried forward and applied to the beginning and ending dates of the succeeding ruler. The mechanical arithmetical results in this table are thus cumulative.
Bible texts
The numbers and totals of the years of reigns reckoned according to the literal letter of the text
Rehoboam of Judah began to reign the 40th year of Solomon. After Rehoboam began to reign the Monarchy became divided.
Rehoboam reigned 17 years, from the 40th year of Solomon to the 17th year of Jeroboam. Rehoboam reigned 18 years, from the 40th year of Solomon to the 18th year of Jeroboam.
Rehoboam died the 17th year of Jeroboam of Israel. Rehoboam died the 18th year of Jeroboam of Israel.
Rehoboam died, and his son Abijam/Abijah began to reign over Judah.
Abijam/Abijah son of Rehoboam of Judah began to reign the 18th year of Jeroboam. Abijam/Abijah reigned 3 years, from the 17th year of Jeroboam to the 20th year of Jeroboam. (17th to the 20th year = 3 years: 20 – 17 = 3.) Abijam/Abijah reigned 3 years, from the 18th year of Jeroboam to the 21st year of Jeroboam. Abijam/Abijah reigned 3 years, from the 20th year of Jeroboam to the 1st year of Nadab son of Jeroboam of Israel.
Abijam/Abijah of Judah outlived Jeroboam of Israel.
Abijam/Abijah of Judah died the 20th year of Jeroboam of Israel
Abijam/Abijah of Judah died the 21st year of Jeroboam of Israel
Abijam/Abijah of Judah died the 1st year of Nadab son of Jeroboam of Israel.
Abijam/Abijah died, and his son Asa began to reign over Judah.
Jeroboam son of Nebat of Israel began to reign the 1st year of Rehoboam of Judah. Jeroboam of Israel reigned 22 years, from the 40th year of Solomon son of David to the 1st year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah. (Rehoboam 18 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, 1st year of Asa 1 = 22 years: 18 + 3 + 1 = 22.) Jeroboam of Israel reigned 22 years, from the 40th year of Solomon to the 2nd year of Asa of Judah. (Rehoboam 17 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, 2nd year of Asa 2 = 22 years: 17 + 3 + 2 = 22.)
Jeroboam of Israel reigned 22 years, from the 1st year of Rehoboam son of Solomon to the 3rd year of Asa of Judah. (1st year of Rehoboam 17 – 1 = 16 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, 3rd year of Asa = 22 years: 16 + 3 + 3 = 22.)
Jeroboam of Israel died before Abijam/Abijah of Judah died, before the 20th/21st year of the Kingdom of Judah, before the end of the reign of Abijam/Abijah. Jeroboam of Israel reigned 22 years, from the 38th/39th year of Solomon to the 2nd/3rd year of Abijam/Abijah of Judah. (The 38th/39th year to the 40th year of Solomon = 2/1 years, Rehoboam 17/18, Abijam/Abijah 2nd/3rd year = 22 years of Jeroboam of Israel:
2 + 18 + 2nd year = 22 years:
2 + 17 + 3rd year = 22 years of Jeroboam of Israel:
1 + 18 + 3rd year = 22 years.)
Jeroboam died the 2nd year of Abijam/Abijah of Judah.
Jeroboam died the 3rd year of Abijam/Abijah of Judah.
Jeroboam died the 1st year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah.
Jeroboam died the 2nd year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah.
Jeroboam died the 3rd year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah.
Jeroboam of Israel died, and his son Nadab began to reign over Israel.
Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah began to reign the 20th year of Jeroboam of Israel. Asa reigned 41 years, from the 20th year of Jeroboam of Israel to the 11th year of Omri of Israel. (Rehoboam 17 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, Asa 41 = 61 years of the Kingdom of Judah: 17 + 3 = 20 years + 41 years = 61. Jeroboam 22 years, Nadab 2, Baasha 24, Elah 2, Zimri-Tibni-Omri 12 = 62 years – 1 year = 61 years of the Kingdom of Israel = 11th year of Omri of Israel.) Asa reigned 41 years, from the 21st year of Jeroboam of Israel to the 12th year of Omri of Israel. (Rehoboam 18 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, Asa 41 = 62 years: 18 + 3 + 41 years = 62. Jeroboam 22 years, Nadab 2, Baasha 24, Elah 2, Zimri-Tibni-Omri 12 = 62 years = 12th year of Omri of Israel.)
Omri reigned 12 years, and his son Ahab began to reign.
Ahab son of Omri began to reign the 38th year of Asa of Judah.
Asa reigned 41 years, from the 1st year of Baasha of Israel to the 3rd year of Ahab of Israel: 24 + 2 + 12 = 38 + 3rd year of Ahab = 41 years. This makes the 1st year of Jeroboam of Israel the 38th year of King Solomon who reigned 40 years: thus Jeroboam began to reign 3 years before Rehoboam son of Solomon began to reign, from the 37th year of Solomon forward to the 40th year = 3 years, Rehoboam 18 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, Asa 41 = 65 years: 3 + 18 + 3 + 41 = 65; in Israel, Jeroboam 22 years, Nadab 2, 1st year of Baasha 1 = 25 years + Baasha 23 more years, Elah 2, Zimri-Tibni-Omri 12, 3rd year of Ahab 3 = 65 years: 22 + 2 + 24 + 2 + 12 + 3 = 65. The 4th year of Ahab results with a reckoning of 17 years for the reign of Rehoboam.) Counting literally back 41 years of Asa from the 3rd year of Ahab son of Omri (and Ahab began to reign the 38th year of Asa), the resultant year of the beginning of Asa's reign is the 1st year of Baasha of Israel.
Asa died the 11th year of Omri of Israel.
Asa died the 12th year of Omri of Israel.
Asa died the 3rd year of Ahab son of Omri of Israel.
Asa died the 4th year of Ahab son of Omri of Israel.
Asa of Judah died, and his son Jehoshaphat began to reign over Judah.
Nadab son of Jeroboam of Israel began to reign the 2nd year of Asa of Judah. Nadab reigned 2 years, from the 2nd year of Asa of Judah to the 4th year of Asa of Judah. (Rehoboam 17 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, 4th year of Asa 4 = 24 years: 17 + 3 + 4 = 24 years to the 4th year of Asa. Jeroboam 22 years, Nadab 2 = 24 years: 22 + 2 = 24 to the 4th year of Asa.)
Nadab reigned 2 years, from the 1st year of Asa of Judah to the 3rd year of Asa of Judah.
(Rehoboam 18 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, 3rd year of Asa 3 = 24 years: 18 + 3 + 3 = 24 years to the 3rd year of Asa. Jeroboam 22 years, Nadab 2 = 24 years = 22 + 2 = 24 years to the 3rd year of Asa of Judah.)
Nadab reigned 2 years. from the 1st year of Abijam/Abijah of Judah to the 3rd year of Abijam/Abijah, when Asa son of Abijam/Abijah began to reign 41 years and Baasha of Israel began to reign 24 years.
(Baasha 24 years, Elah 2, Zimri-Tibni-Omri 12, 3rd year of Ahab 3 = 41 years of Asa: 24 + 2 + 14 + 3 = 41 years.)
Nadab was killed by Baasha son of Ahijah of Israel the 4th year of Asa of Judah.
Nadab was killed by Baasha son of Ahijah of Israel the 3rd year of Asa of Judah.
Nadab was killed by Baasha son of Ahijah of Israel the 3rd year of Abijam/Abijah son of Rehoboam when Asa began to reign 41 years.
Nadab was killed, and Baasha son of Ahijah began to reign over Israel.
Baasha son of Ahijah of Israel began to reign the 3rd year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah.
Baasha reigned 24 years, from the 4th year of Asa of Judah to the 28th year of Asa of Judah.
Baasha reigned 24 years, from the 3rd year of Asa of Judah to the 27th year of Asa of Judah.
Baasha reigned 24 years, from the 3rd year of Abijam/Abijah son of Rehoboam to the 24th year of Asa of Judah.
Baasha king of Israel went up against Judah the 36th year of Asa of Judah.
Baasha reigned 33 years, from the 3rd year of Asa of Judah to the 36th year of Asa of Judah, or later (?)
Baasha died the 28th year of Asa.
Baasha died the 27th year of Asa.
Baasha died the 24th year of Asa.
Baasha died the 36th year of Asa, or later (?)
Baasha died, and his son Elah began to reign over Israel.
Elah son of Baasha of Israel began to reign the 26th year of Asa of Judah.
Elah reigned 2 years, from the 28th year of Asa of Judah to the 30th year of Asa of Judah.
Elah reigned 2 years, from the 27th year of Asa of Judah to the 29th year of Asa of Judah.
Elah reigned 2 years, from the 26th year of Asa of Judah to the 28th year of Asa of Judah.
Elah reigned 2 years, from the 24th year of Asa of Judah to the 26th year of Asa of Judah.
Elah reigned 2 years, from the 36th year (or later) of Asa of Judah to the 38th year (or later) of Asa of Judah.
Elah was killed by Zimri, and Zimri began to reign over Israel.
Zimri began to reign over Israel the 27th year of Asa of Judah.
Zimri reigned 7 days the 38th year of Asa (or later).
Zimri reigned 7 days the 30th year of Asa.
Zimri reigned 7 days the 29th year of Asa.
Zimri reigned 7 days the 28th year of Asa.
Zimri reigned 7 days the 27th year of Asa.
Zimri reigned 7 days the 26th year of Asa.
Zimri fled from Omri, and burned the king's house over himself, and died.
Half the people of Israel followed Omri, and half followed Tibni son of Ginath to make Tibni king of Israel.
Omri's people overcame Tibni's people, Tibni died, and Omri began to reign over Israel.
Omri of Israel contended 4 years with Tibni of Israel for the Kingdom of Israel, from the 27th year of Asa of Judah to the 31st year of Asa of Judah. Omri of Israel began to reign the 31st year of Asa of Judah, 4 years after the 27th year of Asa and 10 years before the 41st year of Asa when Asa died.
Omri reigned 12 years, from the 31st year of Asa of Judah to the 2nd year of Jehoshaphat of Judah. (31st year of Asa + 12 years = 31st to the 41st year of Asa = 10 years of Asa + 2 years of Jehoshaphat = 12 years: 10 + 2 = 12 years of Omri.)
The calendar year assigned to the 31st year of Asa will vary according to the reckoning of the length of the reign of Rehoboam son of Solomon: 17 years or 18 years (1 Kings 12:1-20; 14:20; 14:31-15:1).
Omri reigned 12 years, from the 30th year of Asa of Judah to the 1st year of Jehoshaphat of Judah.
Omri reigned 12 years, from the 29th year of Asa of Judah to the 41st year of Asa.
Omri reigned 12 years, from the 28th year of Asa of Judah to the 40th year of Asa.
Omri reigned 12 years, from the 27th year of Asa of Judah to the 39th year of Asa.
Omri reigned 12 years, from the 26th year of Asa of Judah to the 38th year of Asa.
Omri died, and his son Ahab began to reign over Israel.
Ahab son of Omri of Israel began to reign the 38th year of Asa of Judah.
Ahab reigned 22 years, from the 9th year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah to the 6th year of Jehoram/Joram son of Jehoshaphat of Judah.
Ahab reigned 22 years, from the 2nd year of Jehoshaphat of Judah to the 24th year of Jehoshaphat of Judah.
Ahab reigned 22 years, from the 1st year of Jehoshaphat of Judah to the 23rd year of Jehoshaphat of Judah.
Ahab reigned 22 years, from the 41st year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah to the 22nd year of of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab reigned 22 years, from the 40th year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah to the 21st year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab reigned 22 years, from the 39th year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah to the 20th year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab reigned 22 years, from the 38th year of Asa son of Abijam/Abijah to the 19th year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab died from battle, the 6th year of Jehoram/Joram son of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
(According to 2 Chronicles 16:1-5 Baasha, who killed Nadab son of Jeroboam of Israel, reigned to the 36th year of Asa, then according to a literal count Elah son of Baasha reigned 2 years to the 38th year of Asa, Omri reigned 12 years to the 9th year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa, and Ahab reigned 22 years to the 6th year of Jehoram/Joram son of Jehoshaphat of Judah and died from battle wounds during the reign of Jehoram/Joram of Judah.)
Ahab died the 6th year of Jehoram/Joram son of Jehoshaphat of Judah (Joram reigned 25 years).
Ahab died the 24th year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab died the 23rd year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab died the 22nd year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab died the 21st year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab died the 20th year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab died the 19th year of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
Ahab died, and his son Ahaziah began to reign over Israel.
Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah began to reign the 4th year of Ahab son of Omri of Israel.
see above: Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah.
Asa died the 11th year of Omri Asa died the 12th year of Omri Asa died the 3rd year of Ahab of Israel Asa died the 4th year of Ahab son of Omri (1 Kings 15:24–From the 11th year of Omri to the 4th year of Ahab = 5 years.)
see above: Ahab son of Omri of Israel.
Ahab died the 24th year of Jehoshaphat Ahab died the 23rd year of Jehoshaphat Ahab died the 22nd year of Jehoshaphat Ahab died the 21st year of Jehoshaphat Ahab died the 20th year of Jehoshaphat Ahab died the 19th year of Jehoshaphat (From the 19th year of Jehoshaphat to the 24th year of Jehoshaphat = 5 years.)
According to 1 Kings 15:33 Baasha reigned 24 years.
According to 1 Kings 15:33 and 2 Chronicles 16:1-5 Baasha reigned (at least) 33 years, from the 3rd year of Asa of Judah to the 36th year of Asa of Judah. From 24 to 33 is an increase of 9 years in the reckoning of the years of the Kingdom of Israel. According to 1 Kings 22:51 Ahaziah son of Ahab of Israel reigned 2 years. According to 1 Kings 22:51 and 2 Kings 3:1 Ahaziah son of Ahab reigned 1 year. 2 years to 1 year is a decrease of 1 year in the reckoning of the years of the Kingdom of Israel: + 9 – 1 = 8 years.
The reigns of the kings of Israel which are correlated to the years of the reign of Jehoshaphat of Judah will vary according to the reckoning of the years, all drawn from the literal letter of the texts of the Bible.
A literal count of the years from the 1st year of Rehoboam son of Solomon to the end of the reign of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah gives a variant total of 86 or 87 years (1 Kings 14:21; 14:31-15:1).
Rehoboam 17/18 years, Abijam/Abijah 3, Asa 41, Jehoshaphat 25 = 86/87 years: 17/18 + 3 + 41 + 25 = 86/87 representing a difference of 1 year.
A literal count of the years from the 1st year of Jeroboam son of Nebat to the 86th or 87th year of the Kingdom of Israel ends variously in the reigns of Omri, Ahab son of Omri, Ahaziah son of Ahab, and of Jehoram/Joram brother of Ahaziah son of Ahab.
Jeroboam 22 years, Nadab 2, Baasha 24/33, Elah 2, Zimri-Tibni-Omri 12, Ahab 22, Ahaziah 2/1, Jehoram/Joram 12 years = 98/106 years representing a difference of 8 years.
98 years to the end of the reign of Jehoram/Joram of Israel and 86/87 years to the end of the reign of Jehoshaphat of Judah represents a difference of 12/11 years (1 Kings 14:21; 14:31-15:1).
Jeroboam to the 1st year of Jehoram/Joram of Israel = 87 years.
22 + 2 + 24 + 2 + 12 + 22 + 2 + 1st year of Jehoram 1 = 87.
Jeroboam to the 2nd year of Jehoram/Joram of Israel = 87 years.
22 + 2 + 24 + 2 + 12 + 22 + 1 + 2nd year of Jehoram 2 = 87.
Jeroboam to the 16th year of Ahab son of Omri of Israel = 87 years.
22 + 2 + 33 + 2 + 12 + 16th year of Ahab son of Omri = 87.
Ahab son of Omri of Israel died the 24th, 23rd, 22nd, 21st, 20th, 19th year of Jehoshaphat of Judah: 6 different years.
Asa son of Abijam/Abijah of Judah died the 11th, 12th year of Omri of Israel and the 3rd, 4th year of Ahab son of Omri of Israel: 4 different years, each as the beginning of the reign of Jehoshaphat son of Asa of Judah.
In a table displaying the correlated years of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah the 9 years extending the 24-year reign of Baasha of Israel to 33 years from the 3rd year of Asa of Judah to the 36th year of Asa of Judah places the reigns of Omri, Ahab and Ahaziah of Israel 9 years farther from the 87th year of the Kingdom of Judah (9 years later) and the end of a 1-year reign of Ahaziah son of Ahab of Israel 8 years farther (8 years later). The 11th year of Omri of Israel when Asa died then becomes the 3rd year of Omri of Israel when Asa died and the 1st or 2nd year of Jehoram/Joram son of Ahaziah son of Ahab, as the year Jehoshaphat died, becomes the 17th year of Ahab of Israel, as the year Jehoshaphat died.
All of the above data, taken directly from the text of the Bible itself, strictly according to the letter of the text, and arithmetically reckoned mechanically, provides the following resultant figures:
Jehoshaphat reigned 25 years:
from the 3rd year of Omri to the 16th year of Ahab, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 4th year of Omri to the 17th year of Ahab, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 7th year of Omri to the 20th year of Ahab, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 8th year of Omri to the 21st year of Ahab, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 11th year of Omri to the 2nd year of Ahaziah, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 12th year of Omri to the 1st year of Jehoram/Joram of Israel, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 12th year of Omri to the 2nd year of Jehoram/Joram of Israel, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 3rd year of Ahab to the 5th year of Jehoram/Joram of Israel, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 4th year of Ahab to the 5th year of Jehoram/Joram of Israel, when Jehoshaphat died
from the 4th year of Ahab to the 6th year of Jehoram/Joram of Israel, when Jehoshaphat died.
Jehoshaphat of Judah died, and his son Jehoram/Joram began to reign over Judah.
Jehoram/Joram son of Jehoshaphat of Judah should not be confused with Jehoram/Joram son of Ahab of Israel.
The table to this point illustrates the complex problem of constructing a literal chronology of the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah according to the letter of the text of the Bible alone. Understanding the actual intent of the Biblical authors through the historical-grammatical method of literalist exegesis provides a means of harmonizing apparent inconsistencies according to the literal sense.[22][note 5]
Historical-grammatical method in Biblical literalist chronology
The apparent numerical inconsistencies highlighted by letterism can be harmonized and resolved by interpretation of the Biblical data according to the historical-grammatical method, which aims at discovering the sensus literalis historicus, or literal sense of the text.[105][106][107][22]
Every person who approaches bible study, usually to learn about the historical events it relates, is heavily influenced by the hermeneutical theory, or interpretive understandings, he or she brings to the text, consciously or unconsciously. According to Dr. J. Philip Hyatt, very little of the Bible relates history for its own sake, or for the purposes that a modern historian would adopt. It is, therefore, history of a special order, designed not simply to inform the reader, but to awaken in the reader a response to what the Lord of history has done.[20][25]
"A person who is not open to the possibility of God entering the historical process in a very tangible and real way is not going to get very far with the meaning of those events." —Dr. Donald A. Hagener, Fuller Theological Seminary[108]
The aim of the historical-grammatical method is to strive to discover the Biblical author's original intended meaning in the text, to discover that meaning of the passage and that message which the original author would have intended and what the original hearers would have understood without adding to or taking away from the meaning of the message. Almost all of the books of the Old Testament were written to be read aloud to an assembly of persons. A fundamental principle of exegesis or exposition of the text is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection: a text has at least one meaning, and one's interpretations of that meaning will be right or wrong. The moment this principle is neglected the message of the author becomes obscured by uncertainty and conjecture, and exegesis becomes eisegesis.[20][25]Eisegesis is severely condemned according to many literalist readings of the text of the Book of Deuteronomy and the Book of Revelation:[109]
"Ye shall not add unto the word which I command you, neither shall ye diminish aught from it, that ye may keep the commandments of the LORD your God which I command you." KJV —Deuteronomy 4:2[110]
"For I testify unto every man that heareth the words of the prophesy of this book, If any man shall add unto these things, God shall add unto him the plagues that are written in this book: And if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophesy, God shall take away his part out of the book of life, and out of the holy city, and from the things which are written in this book." KJV —Revelation 22:18–19
In an effort to avoid any deviation from the literal meaning of the text, Biblical literalist chronology draws data from the best available textual evidence. Using the best textual readings of letterism as a beginning, a literalist chronology can be established and sometimes also be corroborated by the most reliable extant extra-biblical findings of archæologists and textual historians (see Biblical manuscript). Where widely varying interpretations obtain, those most closely supporting the literal reading of the letter of the Biblical text are adopted by Biblical literalist researchers, such as Donald G. Bryant, Gershon Galil and Kenneth Kitchen. Apparent internal inconsistencies in the textual data can often be harmonized, not always to the satisfaction of everyone, by recognizing such common practices in antiquity as coregencies or overlapping reigns of a king and his successor, and rival kings contending for the rule of the kingdom and differences between the records of Israel and Judah in the manner of counting the years of a king's reign.[note 13][note 5] Uncertainty remains at many points. Biblical chronology includes numbers which were significant to the biblical authors, and at times integral to their message.[note 49] Differences between ancient and modern calendars often necessitates the giving of alternate dates, a resultant year both earlier and later by modern reckoning (such as 587/586 BCE). Furthermore, different methods of harmonizing the dates of Biblical kings yield slightly different results.[note 4][25]
Moses Maimonides wrote that passages in the Bible which, in their literal sense, contain statements that can be refuted with proof, must and can be interpreted other than literally in a figurative manner, but that a mere argument in favor of a certain proposed theory which rejects literal readings is not enough reason to reject the literal meaning of a Biblical text and interpret it figuratively when the literalist theory can be supported by an equally good argument in its favor. (Guide for the Perplexed, Chapter XXV.)[111]
Lack of consensus
A comparison of literalist chronologies such as those listed in the External links below and those which have been established by William F. Albright, Edwin R. Thiele, Donald G. Bryant, Gershon Galil and Kenneth Kitchen present some apparent differences which to date have not been completely resolved, and research continues. See Biblical archaeology.
Given current difficulties of harmonizing the numerical dating of plainly stated numbers of years in the chronology of the Biblical text, together with a lack of precision due to unknown numbers of years not included by the Biblical authors, a self-consistent, textually-based Biblical literalist chronology leading to total and complete consensus on the fixing of precise historical dates in the Bible by the methods of literal letterism and historical-grammatical exegesis does not at present appear possible. Currently, Biblical literalists have agreed that more recent literalist chronologies constructed from data in the Bible together with historical-critical findings provide useful approximations of datings as they begin to converge. More recent scientific datings of historical archaeological findings are seen to be in closer harmony with the chronology of the Biblical text.[112] What has been called an "unreasonable" insistence on only figurative meanings has begun to decline, yet the theory still remains influential. (B. Ramm, W. A. Elwell, J. P. Hyatt, Pontifical Biblical Commission, J. F. Drinkard, Jr., E. R. Clendenen).[20][22][24][113][note 4] See Biblical Minimalism and Historicity of the Bible.
^ abcAnstey, Rev. Martin, B.D., M.A. (London), The Romance of Bible Chronology, Marshall Brothers, Ltd., London, Edinburgh and New York. October 3rd, 1913. This work is seen as significant within the tradition of Biblical literalism for developing the first Bible chronology that successfully resolved the Bible's apparent chronological gaps. See Chronology of the Bible.
^Mandy Wilson, "The History of Biblical Literalism: What You May Not Know": [self-published source?] —Wilson's provocative blog does not seem to be derived from an academic peer-reviewed source, nor from a traditional published medium with an active editor. Wilson appears to be quoting several sources, and citation of her source references is not offered, e.g.:
"Some scholars date the birth of Christian fundamentalism (as we know it) back to the 1878 Niagara Bible Conference." (no citations given); "Some have referenced Martin Luther, stating that fundamentalism was born along with his theology of Sola Scriptura." (no citations given); "In the 1980’s, theologian and pastor Urban T. Holmes went so far as to state that 'literalism is a modern heresy—perhaps the only heresy invented in modern times'." (no citation given); "Another theologian, Ruth Tiffany Barnhouse, suggests that fundamentalism should be regarded as 'the bastard child of science and religion'." (no citation given) 1878 as a specific, significant date needs to be firmly defended, or softened, or abandoned. (SeeUrban T. Holmes, III, Episcopal priest; andRuth Tiffany Barnhouse, author; alsoMandy Wilson).
^See literalist premise expressed in multiple 17th—21st century literalist Bible commentaries on the meaning of 2 Timothy 3:16 "All scripture is inspired by God". Multiple translations and versions of this Bible text are presented, followed by the text of the commentaries with their original published sources noted. (biblehub.com)
^ abcdefAn exact historical chronology is linked to fixed events known to have occurred on a specific date, in contrast to a relative chronology which lists events in general chronological order, often without dates. Exact historical dates are provided for ancient Israel by Assyrian chronology, through the use of lists of year names (eponyms) that can be linked to a solar eclipse known to have occurred in 763 BCE. Assyrian tablets refer to Ahab king of Israel, who fought Shalmaneser III at the Battle of Qarqar and died in 853 BCE, and to Jehu king of Israel, who in his 1st year paid tribute to Shalmaneser III in 841 BCE. From these dates an historical chronology is reckoned from the length of the reigns in the books of the Kings, giving Solomon's 40-year reign as 970 to 930 BCE, instead of 1022 to 982 as reckoned from the length of the reigns in the books of Kings starting from the historically established date of the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 BCE. Source: Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. and E. Ray Clendenen, "Chronology of the Biblical Period", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 2003, p. 291b. ISBN 978-0-8054-2836-0. —Note that the well-known exact historical chronologies of William F. Albright and Edwin R. Thiele based on Assyrian chronology do not agree.
^ abcdefghijklmnopReading strictly according to the "surface meaning" of the literal letter of the text alone can be problematic. The task of resolving apparently inconsistent numerical and chronological data in the Scriptures according to the actual "literal sense" of the text so as to support and preserve confident belief in the veracity, authenticity and accurate historical reliability of the Bible against the skepticism of its detractors is entrusted to competent biblical researchers: SeeLeo XIII Encyclical (18 November 1893) Providentissimus Deus (PD)—online link to document
"...the first thing to be done is to vindicate the trustworthiness of the sacred records at least as human documents..." (PD 17.) "... It follows that those who maintain that an error is possible in any genuine passage of the sacred writings, either pervert the Catholic notion of inspiration, or make God the author of such error. And so emphatically were all the Fathers and Doctors agreed that the divine writings, as left by the hagiographers, are free from all error, that they labored earnestly, with no less skill than reverence, to reconcile with each other those numerous passages which seem at variance – the very passages which in great measure have been taken up by the "higher criticism"; for they were unanimous in laying it down, that those writings, in their entirety and in all their parts, were equally from the afflatus of Almighty God, and that God, speaking by the sacred writers, could not set down anything but was true...." (PD 21.)
"Bible study is the study of the Bible. There are many methods and departments; none is without value; all of them, when done thoroughly rather than superficially, tend to the deepening of conviction as to the accuracy of the records." —From the Foreword by Rev. G. Campbell Morgan, D.D.
"...the manner of speaking, relating and writing in use among the ancients is made clear by [studying] innumerable examples." (DAS 12.) "For it is the duty of the exegete to lay hold, so to speak, with the greatest care and reverence of the very least expressions which under the inspiration of the Divine Spirit have flowed from the pen of the sacred writer, so as to arrive at a deeper and fuller knowledge of his meaning." (DAS 15.) "...the supreme rule of interpretation is to discover and define what the writer intended to express." (DAS 34.) "...moreover there are not wanting even non-Catholic writers, who by serious and calm inquiry have been led to abandon modern opinion and to return, at least in some points, to the more ancient ideas [of literal interpretation]." (DAS 43.)
^Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, Greek Dictionary of the New Testament, Strong's number 3089. λυω "luō"; to "loosen" (literally or figuratively):—break (up), destroy, dissolve, (un–) loose, melt, put off.
^Ussher annotations seem to date back to the early 1700's, possibly late 1600's. - see page 6 of Jones, F.N. Chronology of the Old Testament. New Leaf Publishing Group, Mar 1, 2005 ebook version ISBN 9781614582106 (pages 1 to 60 available via Google Books).
^For discussions of the history of controverted debates over variant translations of the text, such as those here cited between the Douay-Rheims and the KJV as examples, see:
• Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan (1651). Chapter 35: The Signification in Scripture of 'Kingdom of God'. Hobbes advances detailed critical arguments why the Vulgate rendering (basis of the Douay-Rheims translation) is to be preferred.
• Bobrick, Benson (2001). Wide as the Waters: the story of the English Bible and the revolution it inspired. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84747-7.
• Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (2002). History of the Bible in English. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press. ISBN 0-7188-9052-9.
^The Douay-Rheims Bible reads: "...from the day the ark of the Lord abode in Cariathiarim days were multiplied, (for it was now the twentieth year,)..." that is, when the Books of Samuel were first written, at the beginning of the reign of King David. 1 Samuel 7:2. See1 Chronicles 29:29–30. —Source: "Samuel, books of", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1440–1443.
^For discussion of this and other apparent numerical discrepancies in the Bible's chronology of the years of the reigns of the kings see "Chronology of the Biblical Period", Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. and E. Ray Clendenen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 2003, Holman Bible Publishers, p. 291b ISBN 978-0-8054-2836-0.
^ abcdefghijkl587 BCE back to 1022 BCE = 435 years: Zedekiah 11 years 587–598, Jehoiachin and Jehoiakim 11 years 598–609, Jehoahaz and Josiah 31 years 609–640, Amon 2 years 640–642, Manasseh 55 years 642–697, Hezekiah 29 years 697–726, Ahaz 16 years 726–742, Jotham 16 years 742–758, Uzziah 52 years 758–810, Amaziah 29 years 810–839, Joash 40 years 839–879, Athaliah 7 years 879–886, Ahaziah 1 year 886–887, Joram 8 years 887–895, Jehoshaphat 25 years 895–920, Asa 41 years 920–961, Abijam 3 years 961–964, Rehoboam 17 years 964/5–982, Solomon 40 years 982–1022 = 435 years. 587 BCE plus 435 years = 1022 BCE minus 4 years = 1018 BCE. The 4th year of Solomon thus calculated literally is 1018 BCE.
^ abcde"The Bible is not completely self-interpreting. We can gain much from thorough reading of the text itself, and frequently from comparison of various passages in the Bible. Still, we often require aid from outside the Bible itself." Hyatt, The Heritage of Biblical Faith , p. 45.
^ abcdefghijk(David brought up the ark 1055 BCE) 1055 BCE to 1577 BCE = 522 years. The ark had remained in the house of Abinadab 20 years back to the death of Eli 1055–1075, Eli judged Israel 40 years 1075–1115, Samson (20 years 1115–1135) and the Philistines (the same time period, but preceding him by 20 years 1135–1155) a total period of 40 years 1115–1155, Abdon 8 years 1155–1163, Elon 10 years 1163–1173, Ibzan 7 years 1173–1180, Jephthah 6 years 1180–1186, the Ammonites and Philistines 18 years 1186–1204, Jair 22 years 1204–1226, Tola 23 years 1226–1249, Abimelech 3 years 1249–1252, Gideon 40 years 1252–1292, Midian 7 years 1292–1299, the land rested after Deborah 40 years 1299–1339, Jabin 20 years 1339–1359, Shamgar and Ehud 80 years 1359–1439, Eglon 18 years 1439–1457, Othniel 40 years 1457–1497, Cushan-Rishathaim 8 years 1497–1505, a generation that did not know the LORD (zero 0 years, the Bible does not specify), the days of the elders who outlived Joshua (zero 0 years, the Bible does not specify), death of Joshua 110 years old back to Kadesh/wilderness of Paran (age 40?) 70 years (?) 1505–1575, Kadesh/wilderness of Paran to the Exodus 2 years 1575–1577. 1055 BCE plus 522 years = 1577 BCE.
^ abcd"4246 BC." Reckoning the years (beginning with the Exodus from Egypt as 1577 BCE) in Egypt 430 years, Israel/Jacob (before 17 years in Egypt) 130 years, Isaac 60, Abraham 100, Terah 70, Nahor 29, Serug 30, Reu 32, Peleg 30, Eber 34, Shelah 30, Arpachshad 35, Shem 100 (2 years after the flood), Noah 503 (601 years old when the flood ended and Shem was 98—he was 503 years old when Shem was born—503 years), Lamech 182, Methuselah 187, Enoch 65, Jared 162, Mahalalel 65, Kenan 70, Enosh 90, Seth 105, Adam 130 = 2669 years back to 4246 BCE (1577–4246).
^ abcdJoseph at 17 years old was a mere "lad", a "boy" ( Template:Hebrew ). Joshua was a "young ( Template:Hebrew ) man". According to Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary of the Old Testament, the word "lad" or "boy" (Genesis 37:2), and "young (man)" (Exodus 33:11), is a translation of Strong's number 5288 Template:Hebrewna'ar. It means an active boy from the age of infancy to adolescence, and by implication a servant—boy, child, lad, servant, young (man).
^"lad": According to Strong's Concordance of the Bible, Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary of the Old Testament, number 5288. Template:Hebrew na'ar, a boy (as active) from the age of infancy to adolescence; by implication, a servant:—babe, boy, child, lad, servant, young (man). The same term is also applied (by interchange of gender) to a girl, a damsel, of similar latitude in age. Ishmael 17–20 years old by the reckoning in this table was also Template:Hebrew na'ar (Genesis 21:17–20), a "lad", a "boy", young (man), youth, when he and his mother Hagar were cast out after Isaac was weaned.
^ abRa-amses/Rameses was the site of the new Hyksos capital (1638–1530 B.C.) called Avaris before they were driven out by the Theban pharaoh Ahmose I, the first pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty, who then established a fortress and settlement on this site. Ahmose I's successors, down to Thutmose III, built and used a large royal compound just south of this site, which was in use until the reign of Amenhotep II. However, Pharaoh Raamses II/Ramesses II also built near this site. Source: "Pithom and Rameses", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1301.
^According to carbon-dating, Jericho (Jericho City IV) was destroyed between 1617 and 1530 BCE. The site remained uninhabited (Joshua's curse ? 6:26) until the city was refounded in the 9th century BCE. John Garstang determined that Jericho was destroyed by fire around 1400 BCE, corresponding to the biblical dating of the Israelite conquest current at that time. Kathleen Kenyon's findings disagreed with Garstang and the accepted biblical dating, and she dated the destruction and the city wall to a much earlier time, in the 1600–1500s, c. 1550. But she believed that the Exodus and the conquest under Joshua took place in the 1200s and declared that, since the city had already been long uninhabited through the entire 13th century, it was impossible that Jericho had been destroyed by Joshua according to the biblical account. "While critical scholars underline the conflict between archaeological data and the biblical conquest narrative, in reality there is no conflict here."—Karen Joines and Eric Mitchell. —Source: "Jericho", Karen Joines and Eric Mitchell, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 885–888. Israeli-Canadian journalist Simcha Jacobovici (The Exodus Decoded, 2006) pointed out that if researchers of the future insisted that the American Civil War took place at the time of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the 1960s at the time of the Vietnam War, and then looked for evidence supporting occurrence of the Civil War at that time, they would find none, and the presidency of Abraham Lincoln would be regarded as only legendary. If chronological dating provided by a more literal reading of the Tanakh were taken seriously, then concrete archaeological evidence for the historical accuracy of the biblical text would become more evident: "It's staring them in the face, and they don't recognize it."
^The account of Moses' death in the Book of Deuteronomy, among other texts in the Torah, suggests that Moses did not write the whole of what is contained in the Five Books of Moses. —Source: "Deuteronomy, book of", Daniel I. Block, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 415–419, page 417a.
^"1498. The Exodus." See The Exodus Decoded: Simcha Jacobovici's arguments. Simcha Jacobovici coincidentally argues for a similar literalist date of c. 1500 BCE without directly adverting to the arithmetically derived textually based chronological date used in this table. His use of extra-biblical archæologically dated evidence in support of his arguments for a 16th/15th century date for the Exodus has been criticised and rejected by a majority of mainstream researchers (critical sources cited in article The Exodus Decoded#References).
^Harmonizing the 300 years of Judges 11:4-28 back to the time of Israel in the wilderness, and the 450 years of Acts 11:19-20 as the period of time between Joshua and King Saul, is an apparent inconsistency which is resolved simply by proposing the speculative possibility that one or both of these numbers is/are figures of speech used by the speakers, and/or that many of the saving actions of the "governors" Template:Hebrewshoftim ("judges") in Israel could have occurred simultaneously or overlapped in time. This is not explicitly stated in the Book of Judges, which "plainly" relates their exploits solely as a sequential series of events, so that taking the texts literally, without recourse to the method of grammatico-historical exegesis, confronts uninstructed readers of the Bible with what appears to them to be an impossible inconsistency which can be unsettling. SeeChronology of the Bible.
^Pharaoh Merneptah (1224–1214 BCE) mounted a campaign against Canaan in the 5th year of his reign (about 1220). In his record of that campaign, he records that, among others, Israel was utterly destroyed, evidence that the people of Israel were already a recognized group in Canaan. —Source: "Chronology of the Biblical Period", Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. and E. Ray Clendenen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 293b.
^ abc1183 BCE—from 1092 BCE back to 1183 BCE, 2 generations plus 10 years. Counting back literally 2 generations, mechanically allotting the traditional 40 years each (total 80), from the birth of David reckoned as 1092 BC, literal count, plus 10 years according to Ruth 1:1 (total 90 years) = 1182 BC (1092 + 90), a time of famine during the historically documented Bronze Age collapse 1206–1150 BCE. Such a literalist calculation is pure speculation and has no recognized historical value. The Ussher chronology places the famine in 1298 BC. The Book of Ruth is not dated by reference to a ruler or specific event, other than a famine. The totalled numbers of the years of the 2 generations (80 years) cannot be drawn from the letter of the text of the Bible; the Bible does not give the ages and years of the 2 generations, only the genealogy of Boaz, father of Obed (1st generation), the father of Jesse (2nd generation), the father of David. Many dismiss the genealogy in 4:18-22 as irrelevant. —Source: "Ruth, book of", Daniel I. Block, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1422–1424.
^ abcdefThe text of the manuscript, translation or version of the Bible being consulted will affect the calculation and tabulation of the years in a literalist chronology based on the Old Testament texts/translations of 1 Samuel 13:1. Saul's age when he began to reign and the number of years he reigned according to published texts vary and remain uncertain (the variant Bible versions in English are here abbreviated): Saul was 30 years old when he began to reign, and he reigned 42 years (1105–1063/2). NIV, NLT, NASB, HCSB, ISV, NIRV Saul was [30] years old when he began to reign, and he reigned [42] years (1105 ? – 1063/2). GOD'S WORD Saul was [30] years old when he began to reign, and he reigned [40] years (1103 ? – 1063/2). NET Saul was 30 years old when he began to reign, and he reigned (?) years (unknown). Hexaplar Saul was 40 years old when he began to reign, and he reigned 32 years (1095–1063/2). NLV Saul was 40 years old when he began to reign, and he reigned (?) years (unknown). ASV, WEB, Amplified (est.) Saul was 30 years old when he began to reign, and he reigned 2 years (1065–1063/2). ERV Saul was (?) years old when he began to reign, and he reigned 2 years (1065–1063/2). CEV, Darby, Complete Jewish Bible (chabad.org), with Rashi commentary (chabad.org), Latin Vulgate, Luther Bibel 1545, MT (Masoretic) and JPS (1917) Jewish Hebrew-English, NRSV (Oremus) Saul was a son/child of one (1) year in his reigning/when he became king/began to reign, and he reigned 2 years over Israel. DR, Jubilee Bible 2000, Wycliffe Bible, YLT
^ abcdCompare1 Samuel 14:18 in multiple English translations together. Bible versions based on the Masoretic Text state that "the ark" was with Saul and the people as they went into battle. Bible versions based on the Septuagint state that "the ephod" was with Saul and the people as they went into battle—this reading is supported by the statement in the text (v. 19) that Saul told the high priest Ahijah "withdraw your hand" (from within the ephod). The possibility that after the death of Eli the ark was brought out of the house of Abinadab by Saul to go before the people in battle is only a speculation when the text of 1 Samuel 7:2 plainly states that the ark remained in the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim for 20 years, "a long time", after the death of Eli. The possibility that Saul was king for 30, 28, 20 years (literal reckoning) as commander of 3,000 men of Israel (1 Samuel 13:2 and 14:52) before and during the battle with the Philistines when the ark was captured appears unlikely, when 1 Samuel 4–8 does not mention Saul and only long afterward in chapter 8 do the elders of the people say to Samuel, "Give us a king."
^ abActs 13:21. "...God gave them Saul son of Kish, a man of the tribe of Benjamin, for 40 years." Saul was anointed king of Israel by the prophet Samuel long after the high priest Eli died (1 Samuel 4:10–8:10) "when Samuel became old" and Samuel was judge over Israel (1 Samuel 7:15–16). The subsequent 7 months after Eli died, and the 20-year period during which the ark of the covenant remained in the house of Abinadab after the death of Eli, until David removed it to Jerusalem, does not allow a literal 40-year reign after Eli died, plus a literal 7 years 6 months for David's reign over the house of Judah before he was crowned king over all Israel and Judah, after which he brought the ark up to Jerusalem: a total of at least 48 years 1 month. Taking literally the numerical data of 40 years at face value as presented by the letter of the text of Acts 13:21, together with the 20 years of 1 Samuel 7:2, plus the 7 years 6 months of 2 Samuel 5:4-5 after Saul died and before David brought the ark up to Jerusalem, Saul would thus have been king 28 years before the death of Eli when the Philistines captured the ark, returned it to Israel after 7 months, and it was placed in the house of Abinadab for 20 years: therefore (strictly according to a reading of the letter of the text) long after the death of Eli, when Samuel was old, Saul was anointed king and reigned 28 years before Eli died. This apparent paradox is resolved by literalist researchers using the literal letter of the text (letterism) as a beginning, and applying the historical-grammatical method of exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation, to uncover what they believe to be the real sensus literalis historicus, the true "literal sense" of the text—the actual meaning intended by the biblical author. See belowHistorical-grammatical method in Biblical literalist chronology See aboveApparent textual inconsistencies See alsoFigure of speech and Hyperbole —Sources: Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) n. 116 Martin Anstey, Romance of Bible Chronology Edwin Thiele, Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings
^ abSeveral literalist Bible translators present Saul as being one year old when he became king (1 Samuel 13:1): "Saul was a child of one year when he began to reign..." Douay-Rheims Bible "Saul was a son of one year when he became king..." Jubilee Bible 2000 "Saul was a son of one year..." Wycliffe Bible "A son of a year [is] Saul in his reigning..." Young's Literal Translation See1 Samuel 13:1—multiple translations. Some versions state in footnotes that the "Hebrew text is defective", and "The number is lacking in Heb." Some Bible footnotes and commentaries offer additional speculative interpretations of the meaning of "one year" according to what their authors as researchers see as the actual "literal sense" according to the rules of sound exegesis (for example, Douay-Rheims Bible, Young's Literal Translation).
^Micah is an abbreviated form of Micaiah. Micah was prophet during reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah (758–697). The interval of years from last year of Jehoshaphat through 1st year of Hezekiah 895 through 726, 170 years inclusive, makes it unlikely that Micaiah and Micah are the same. Compare 1 Kings 22:28 "Hear, all you peoples!" and Micah 1:2 "Hear, you peoples, all of you!". —Source: "Micah", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1117, "Micaiah", p. 1119.
^ abMany scholars divide the Book of Isaiah among 2 or more authors, but other scholars hold a single authorship. —Source: "Isaiah, book of", Harold Mosley and Steve Bond, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 837b–841b.
^ abIn the 1899 edition of the Douay-Rheims Bible, prefatory notes correlate the period of the Book of Judith with the reign of Manasseh and state that the writer of this book was "generally believed to be the high priest Eliachim (also called Joachim)".
^Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary of the Old Testament, 6950. Template:Hebrewqahal, to convoke, assemble, gather. Qahal is the root of the word Qoheleth (Greek Ecclesiastes), translated "preacher", one who assembles or gathers the people.
^The Bible shows Josiah greater and wiser than Solomon, which is not the popular tradition. 2 Kings 23:25 and Sirach 49:1–5. Josiah's wisdom did not depart from him as it departed from Solomon in his old age. 1 Kings 11:4, 6, 11, 33; Ecclesiastes 2:9. Both Qoheleth (Hebrew) and Ecclesiastes (Greek) denote one who presides over an assembly, that is, a preacher or teacher (cf. 2 Kings 23:1–3 and 2 Chronicles 34:29–32). Traditionally, Solomon has been identified as the author of Ecclesiastes/Qoheleth, "but in modern times many, including a large number of conservative scholars" assign the book to an author and a period later than Solomon. The Bible does not state that Solomon ever read the Book of the Law, the Law of Moses, or the Torah, to the assembly of Israel. cf. 1 Kings 8 and 10:24, and 2 Chronicles 5:2–7:10 and 9:22–23 —Sources: "Josiah", M. Stephen Davis, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 954–956. "Ecclesiastes, book of", Stephen R. Miller, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 452b–455a.
^Strong's Exhaustive Concordance, Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary of the Old Testament, 1892. Template:Hebrew hebel, heh'-bel; or (rarely in the abstract) Template:Hebrewhab-ale'; from 1891; emptiness or vanity; figuratively something transitory and unsatisfactory; often used as an adverb:— (in KJV from an idiom peculiar to the Hebrew) altogether, vain, vanity.
^Judith 4:1-3 (DR) citation is placed here according to a literal reading of the text which uncritically takes "Nabuchodonosor" as one of the forms of the name of Nebuchadnezzar II (as noted in the Douay-Rheims preface to Judith, and as used in Baruch 1:11-12 Douay-Rheims), also called Nebuchadrezzar in the books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel; just as Tiglath-pileser is also called Tiglath-pilneser and Pul, and Azariah king of Judah is also called Uzziah, and Jehozadak the high priest is called Jozedech and Jozadak in 1 Chronicles (6:14-15), Ezra and Nehemiah. —Source: articles "Jehozadak", "Tiglath-Pileser", "Uzziah", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 879, 1595, 1644.
^The prophetic author of Obadiah in verses 10-14 refers to the past. The book itself belongs to the early postexilic period. —Source: "Obadiah 10.", "Obadiah, book of", Leslie C. Allen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1204b-1205.
^There has been some debate as to when the second siege of Jerusalem took place. Though there is no dispute that Jerusalem fell the second time in the summer month of Tammuz (Jeremiah 52:6), William F. Albright dates the end of Zedekiah's reign (and the fall of Jerusalem) to 587 BC, whereas Edwin R. Thiele offers 586 BC, and Bernard Grun proposes 581 BC (The Timetables of History).
• Thiele, Edwin, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, (1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2nd ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). ISBN 0-8254-3825-X, 9780825438257.
• Hughes, Jeremy, Secrets of the Times (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990) 229.
• McFall, Leslie, "A Translation Guide to the Chronological Data in Kings and Chronicles", Bibliotheca Sacra 148 (1991) 45.
• Strand, Kenneth, "Thiele's Biblical Chronology as a Corrective for Extrabiblical Dates", Andrews University Seminary Studies 34 (1996) 310, 317.
• Finegan, Jack, Handbook of Biblical Chronology (rev. ed.; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998) 257–259.
• Young, Rodger C., "When Did Jerusalem Fall?" Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 47 (2004) 21–38.
^ abDaniel 11:3-44. When read literally these verses plainly describe the dynastic histories of the Ptolemies in Egypt (the king of the south) and the Seleucids in Syria (the king of the north), the two divisions of the Hellenistic empire that were of interest to the author (verse 6). In verses 10-20 is described the struggle between the two kingdoms for control of Palestine, in which the Seleucids were eventually victorious. The reference in verse 20 is to Seleucus IV, who sent Heliodorus to plunder the temple treasure in Jerusalem (2 Maccabees 3). Finally, verses 21-45 describe the career of Antiochus IV and his persecution. —Source: New American Bible, Daniel 11:5-45 "The Hellenistic Age", footnotes. —Rulers and battles are listed individually by name with dates.
^Zagros Folded Zone with Zagros Mountains between the Caspian Sea and Babylon where Antiochus IV Epiphanes died according to 1 Macc. 6 and 2 Macc. 9, and Daniel 11:45. "between the sea and the glorious holy mountain...he shall come to his end with none to help him."—"...among the mountains in a strange land." A majority of Biblical scholars maintain that Daniel wrongly prophesied that Antiochus would die in Palestine.Daniel's prophesy of the death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes "among the mountains in a strange land" (2 Maccabees 9:28; Daniel 11:44–45) is controverted. Daniel 11:45 does not specify which "sea". Some students of the Bible [source: "Daniel", S. Miller, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary] identify Antiochus literally with Daniel 11:21-44, which accords with the description of his policies and actions in 1 and 2 Maccabees. 1 Maccabees 6:1-16 and 2 Maccabees 9:1-16, 28 shows that Antiochus died travelling on the great east-west highway running through Persia, northeast of Judea and Mount Zion and southwest of the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, in the mountainous Zagros region of Persia between Ecbatana and Babylon. It is evident that he did not die in Palestine between Mount Zion and the Mediterranean Sea. Traditionally, "the sea" and "the great sea" in the Bible is the Mediterranean (Joshua 1:4; 9:1; 15:12 and 15:47; 23:4;Isaiah 11:11; Jeremiah 25:19–22; Ezekiel 47:19;Daniel 7:2–3; compare Joel 2:20 "eastern sea" and "western sea", and Micah 7:12 "from sea to sea"). This is the understanding of a majority of Old Testament Biblical scholars such as C. L. Seow [Daniel, 2003, Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville, Kentucky, ISBN 978-0-664-25675-3], and John J. Collins, Peter W. Flint, and others [The Book of Daniel: Volume 1 Composition and Reception, 2000, BRILL, ISBN 9789004116757] who hold that Daniel 11:45 refers to the mountains of Judea between Mount Zion and the Mediterranean Sea, or more specifically to Mount Zion, and conclude that the prophesy that Antiochus would die in Palestine "is totally inaccurate" since he died in Persia. Bible translations of this passage differ: some have Antiochus pitching his pavilion "between the seas", others have it "on the glorious holy mountain", while others more literally have it "between the glorious holy mountain and the sea" (see variant translations at Daniel 11:44–45). The conclusion of most Old Testament scholars is that the account in Daniel 11 is completely accurate through verse 44, but wrong in verse 45, and therefore it must have been completed near the end of the reign of Antiochus but before his death in December 164, or at least before news of it reached Jerusalem. But this scholarly reading of "the sea" as the Mediterranean, and those translations having Antiochus' pavilion "on/in the glorious holy mountain (Zion)" in Palestine, are simply dismissed as wrong by a literalist plain reading of the Biblical text (context) as it relates to the death of Antiochus among the mountains of Persia "in a strange land" between the Caspian Sea and Mount Zion. —Sources: "Mediterranean Sea", Philip Lee, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1097–1098. "Daniel, book of", Stephen R. Miller, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 386–388. "Antiochus", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 76–77. New American Bible, Daniel 11:5-45 and footnote; 1 Maccabees 6:1 and footnote; 2 Maccabees 9:1-28 and footnote.
^The Book of Judith is an oblique parabolic tale of the Maccabean triumph over the hostile forces of the enemies of God: Judith beheaded Holofernes and Judas Maccabeus beheaded Nicanor. See Judith 14:11:
"As soon as it was dawn they hung the head of Holofernes on the wall..." (RSVCE)
"...he hung Nicanor's head from the citadel, a clear and conspicuous sign to every one of the help of the Lord.... And from that time the city has been in the possession of the Hebrews." (RSVCE)
^Aristobulus II (son of Alexander Jannaeus [ruled 103–76 BCE] son of John Hyrcanus). It is unlikely that the earlier Aristobulus I is indicated, who imprisoned his mother, killed his brother, and ruled less than one year 104–103 BCE as ethnarch and high priest. Ant. 13:11:1–3 (§§301–317).
^Some scholars (The New American Bible for example) believe that the Antiochus referred to in this text of 2 Macc. 1:14 was Antiochus IV Epiphanes: "1, 14-17: A different account of the death of Antiochus IV is given in 2 Mc 9, 1-29 and another variant account in 1 Mc 6, 1-16. The writer of this letter [2 Macc. 1:10–2:18 one copy to Aristobulus in Jerusalem, one copy to the Jews in Egypt] probably heard a distorted rumor of the king's death. This fact and other indications show that the letter was written very soon after Antiochus IV died, hence in 164 B.C. —New American Bible, 2 Maccabees 1:14–17, footnote. As with the text of Daniel 11:45, a literalist interpretation of 2 Maccabees rejects the scholarly view of a "distorted rumor" in favor of an "inerrant" reading that takes the narrative as an accurate report, and therefore as not referring to the death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, but to the actual death of another Antiochus who was slain by Parthians in the (Syrian) region of Persia/the Parthian Empire in the temple of Nanaya. The extra-biblical evidence cited by Mahlon H. Smith and others regarding the circumstances of the death of Antiochus X tends to support this literalist view, but this is currently a minority opinion.
^Significant numbers include 7, 49, 70, 12, 24, 72, 12,000, 144,000, 3, 4, 40, 318, 666. "Any interpretation based on gematria must be treated with care; such interpretation always remains speculative." — Source: "Number systems and number symbology", Joel F. Drinkard, Jr., Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1199–1201. See also Significance of numbers in Judaism.
^Geisler, Norman (1977, May 1996) A Popular Survey of the Old Testament, Baker Publishing Group. ISBN 9780801036842; Geisler, Norman (1982, 4 August 2004) Decide For Yourself: How History Views the Bible, Zondervan. ISBN 9781592447831.
^Ahituv, Shmuel, ed., Echoes from the Past: Hebrew and Cognate Inscriptions from the Biblical Period (Jerusalem: Carla, 28 February 2008). p. 528. ISBN 9652207081.
^ abcd"Chronology of the Biblical Period", Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. and E. Ray Clendenen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary (2003), pp. 691b–695a. ISBN 978-0-8054-2836-0.
^Hyatt, J. Philip, The Heritage of Biblical Faith, 1964, p. 41
^ abcdefgCatechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) n. 116: "The literal sense is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation: 'All other senses of Sacred Scripture are based on the literal.' St. Thomas AquinasSTh I, 1, 10 ad 1." ISBN 1-57455-109-4. "The task of interpreting the Word of God authentically has been entrusted solely to the Magisterium of the Church, that is, to the Pope and to the bishops in communion with him"Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) n. 100.
^The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Houghton Mifflin: 4 edition (September 14, 2000) defines literalism as "1. Adherence to the explicit sense of a given text or doctrine. 2. Literal portrayal; realism."
^ abcd"Bible hermeneutics", Steve Bond, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 203–207.
^"Jericho", Karen Joines and Eric Mitchell, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 885–888.
^ abStroud, Kenneth A., "Thiele's Biblical Chronology As a Corrective for Extrabiblical Dates", Andrews University Seminary Studies 34 (1996), pp. 293–317.
^Dever, William G. (March/April 2006). "The Western Cultural Tradition Is at Risk", Biblical Archaeology Review32 (2): 26 & 76.
^Millard, Alan Ralph, James Karl Hoffmeier, David Wesley Baker, Faith, Tradition, and History, Eisenbrauns, 1994 ISBN 978-0-931464-82-9, p. 15.
^ abAlbright, William F., The Biblical Period From Abraham to Ezra: An Historical Survey, New York, Harpercollins College Div, June 1, 1963. ISBN 978-0061301025.
^ abThiele, Edwin, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, (1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2nd ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). ISBN 978-0-8254-3825-7.
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyGrun, Bernard, The Timetables of History: A Horizontal Linkage of People and Events, New Fourth Revised Edition based on Werner Stein's Kulturfahrplan, English Language Edition Simon & Schuster, Inc. ISBN 978-0-7432-7003-8.
^ abSources for Ussher Chronology dates:
—September 1, 1899 Edition, Douay-Rheims Version, The Old Testament, translated from the Latin Vulgate, first published by The English College at Douay 1609, footnotes —(Saint Benedict Press, Charlotte, North Carolina, XXIX);
—A. D. 1611 King James Version and Revised Version of A. D. 1881 arranged in parallel columns, O. A. Browning & Co., Toledo, Ohio, Potter, Chase & Co., Kansas City, MO, J. H. Buckmaster, Toledo, Ohio, 1881, intercolumnar notes.
^ abc"Hammurabi", Gary D. Baldwin and E. Ray Clendenen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 708–710.
^"Egypt", Daniel C. Browning, Jr. and Kirk Kilpatrick, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 463b–469.
^ abcdefgRyholt, Kim S. B., The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C., (Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications) vol 20, Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997. p. 192.
^Ryholt, K. "The Date of Kings Sheshi and Ya'qub-Har and the Rise of the Fourteenth Dynasty", The Second Intermediate Period: Current Research, Future Prospects, edited by M. Maree, Orientalis Lovaniensis Analecta 192, Leuven, Peeters, 2010, pp. 109–126.
^ abcThomas Schneider: Ancient Egyptian Chronology – Edited by Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, and David A. Warburton. Brill 2006. available online, scroll down to pp. 195/6 and footnote 135 for Schneider date 1658 BC. "Providing any exact figure for the total duration of the period of Dyn. 13–17 is impossible." (p. 195)
^Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000) The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-19=815034-2.
^"Micah", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1117.
^ ab"Joel, book of", Alvin O. Collins, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 929–930.
^"Merodach-Baladan", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1108.
^"Assyria", Daniel C. Browning, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 136.
^"Esarhaddon", M. Stephen Davis, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 502.
^"Nahum, book of", Scott Langston, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1170.
^ abcd"Zephaniah 2.", "Zephaniah, book of", Paul L. Redditt and E. Ray Clendenen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1706-1707.
^ abc"Ezekiel", Daniel I. Block, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 536–537.
^"Habakkuk", "Habakkuk, book of", John H. Tullock, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 696–594.
^"Nabopolassar", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1167.
^"Necho", "Nechoh", "Neco", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1181.
^"Hophra", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 781.
^"Lamentations, book of", David K. Stabnow, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1008.
^"Johanan 1.", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 931.
^ ab"Babylon", Daniel C. Browning, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 155–160.
^"Evil-merodach, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 521.
^ ab"Cyrus", Mike Mitchell, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 377b-378.
^"Darius 1. Darius the Mede", T. J. Betts, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 389–390.
^"Haggai, book of", E. Ray Clendenen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 701.
^"Sheshbazzar", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 1485. "Zerubbabel", Paul L. Redditt, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1708–1709.
^"Darius 2. Darius I", T. J. Betts, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 389-390. "Persia", Albert F. Bean, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1279-1280.
^"Haggai", "Haggai, book of", E. Ray Clendenen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 701–703.
^"Zechariah 18." "Zechariah, book of", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1701–1702.
^"Obadiah", Leslie C. Allen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p.1205.
^"Nabateans", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1166–1167.
^"Ahasuerus", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 37. See also "Persia" pp. 1279-1280, and "Xerxes" p. 1694.
^"Malachi, book of", E. Ray Clendenen, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 1070-1071.
^"Jeshua 3.", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 898-899 "Joiakim", p. 940, "Eliashib 3." p. 477, "Joiada 2." p. 940b, "Jonathan 11. 12." p. 944
^New American Bible, Book of Job, prefatory notes.
^ ab"Alexander the Great", Lynn Jones, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 45.
^ abSeeBook of Daniel: Symbolic imagery and historical chronology. See also "Daniel, book of," Stephen R. Miller, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 386–388, "Outline", p. 388b. See also New American Bible, Daniel 7:1-27, footnote, 8:1-27, footnote, 11:2-4, footnote.
^"Jaddua", Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, p. 864b.
^New American Bible, 2 Maccabees 3–4, footnotes. The gymnasium where the youth exercised naked lay in the Tyropoeon Valley to the east of the citadel, directly next to the temple on its eastern side.
^New American Bible, 2 Maccabees 5:1, footnote. "168 BC"
^New American Bible, The Book of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Foreword, according to footnote 2: "Thirty-eighth...Euergetes: 132 BC. The reference is to Ptolemy VII," [sic] "Physkon II Euergetes II (170–163; 145, 117 B.C.)"
^New American Bible, 1 Maccabees 16:23-24, footnote.
^Saint Joseph Edition of The New American Bible, copyright 1987, 1980, 1970 by Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, N.Y. The Book of Wisdom, prefatory notes, page 750.
^Saint Joseph Edition of The New American Bible, copyright 1987, 1980, 1970 by Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, N.Y. The Book of Judith, prefatory notes, page 485.
^"The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church" Text and Commentary; ed. Joseph A. Fitzmeyer; Subsidia Biblica 18; Rome: Editrice Pontificio Institutio Biblico, 1995. See esp. p. 26, "The historical-critical method is the indispensible method for the scientific study of the meaning of ancient texts." Document, Pontifical Biblical Commission
^Terry, Milton S. (1974), Biblical Hermeneutics: a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments, Zondervan Pub. House, Grand Rapids, Mich. page 205.
^"Bible, methods of study", Robert H. Stein, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, pp. 207–211.
^The History Channel. Mysteries of the Bible Season One: "Jesus: Holy Child. 4. The Virgin Birth" A&E television production, original airdate 24 April 1994.
^Kitchen, Kenneth (2003), On the Reliability of the Old Testament, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids and Cambridge. Preface, pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN 0-8028-4960-1.
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