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Underground stem

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Underground stems are modified plant parts that derive from stem tissue but exist under the soil surface.[1] They function as storage tissues for food and nutrients, facilitate the propagation of new clones, and aid in perennation (survival from one growing season to the next).[2] Types of underground stems include bulbs, corms, rhizomes, stolons, and tubers.[3][4][5][6][7]

Plants have two structures or axes of growth, which can be best seen from seed germination and growth. Seedlings develop two axes of growth: stems, which develop upward out of the soil, and roots, which develop downward. The roots are modified to have root hairs and branch indiscriminately with cells that take in water and nutrients, while the stems are modified to move water and nutrients to and from the leaves and flowers. [8][9][10] Stems have nodes with buds where leaves and flowers arise at specific locations, while roots do not. Plants use underground stems to multiply by asexual reproduction and to survive from one year to the next, usually through dormancy.[11] Some plants produce stems modified to store energy and preserve a location of potential growth to survive a cold or dry period which normally is a period of inactive growth, and when that period is over the plants resume new growth from the underground stems.[12][13][14][15]

Being underground protects the stems from the elements during the dormancy period, such as freezing and thawing in winter, extreme heat and drought in summer, or other potentially harmful elements such as fire. They can also protect plants from heavy grazing pressure from animals, the plant might be eaten to the ground but new growth can occur from below ground stem that can not be reached by the herbivores.[16][17][18][19] Several plants, including weedy species,[20] use underground stems to spread and colonize large areas,[21] since the stems do not have to be supported or strong, less energy and resources are needed to produce these stems and often these plants have more mass underground than above ground.

Types of underground stems

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Different forms of underground stems include:[22]

  • Bulb - Short, upright organ leaves modified into thick flesh scales. Tulips, daffodils[23] and Lilies.
  • Corm - Short, upright, hard, or fleshy stems covered with thin, dry papery leaves.
  • Rhizome - With reduced scale-like leaves. The top can generate leafy stems while the bottom can produce roots. Iris and many grasses.
  • Stolon - Horizontal stems that run at or just below the soil surface with nodes that root and long internodes, the ends produce new plants. When above ground they are called "runners".
  • Tuber - An enlarged fleshy end of a stem, generally from rhizomes but often also referring to thickened roots.

A number of underground stems are consumed by people including; onion, potato, ginger, yam and taro.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30]

The below-ground stems of grasses have scales, while roots are smooth without scales.[31]

Geophyte

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A geophyte (earth+plant) is a plant with an underground storage organ including true bulbs, corms, tubers, tuberous roots, enlarged hypocotyls, and rhizomes. Most plants with underground stems are geophytes but not all plants that are geophytes have underground stems. Geophytes are often physiologically active even when they lack leaves. They can survive during adverse environmental conditions by going into a state of quiesce and later resume growth from their storage organs, which contain reserves of carbohydrates and water when the environmental conditions are favorable again.[32][33][34][35][36][37]

References

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  1. ^ QA International Collectif (2007). The Visual Guide to Understanding Plants & the Vegetable Kingdom - Plants & the Vegetable Kingdom. Québec Amerique. pp. 35–. ISBN 978-2-7644-0894-0.
  2. ^ V. B. Rastogi (1 January 1997). Modern Biology. Pitambar Publishing. pp. 22–. ISBN 978-81-209-0442-2.
  3. ^ "3: Nasal Olfactory Organs andOlfactory Bulbs in Blennies", The Biology of Blennies, CRC Press, pp. 199–226, 2009-01-05, doi:10.1201/b10301-14, ISBN 9780429063527, retrieved 2023-09-27
  4. ^ Nursery stock, BSI British Standards, doi:10.3403/00174760 (inactive 2 December 2024), retrieved 2023-09-27{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
  5. ^ Rosenberg, Noah (2016). "From Trees to Rhizomes". Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 59 (2): 246–252. doi:10.1353/pbm.2017.0009. ISSN 1529-8795. PMID 37765717. S2CID 78995989.
  6. ^ Emschermann, Peter (1987-01-28). "Creeping propagation stolons - an effective propagation system of the freshwater entoproct Urnatella gracilis LEIDY [Barentsiidae)". Archiv für Hydrobiologie. 108 (3): 439–448. doi:10.1127/archiv-hydrobiol/108/1987/439. ISSN 0003-9136. S2CID 89189547.
  7. ^ Figure 3 in Chapagain, Deep J.; Meilby, Henrik; Ghimire, Suresh K. (2019). "Plant density and life history traits of Aconitum spicatum in North-central Nepal: Effects of elevation and anthropogenic disturbances". PeerJ. 7: e7574. doi:10.7717/peerj.7574. PMC 6743441. PMID 31565560.
  8. ^ Lew, Roger R. (2000), "Electrobiology of Root Hairs", Root Hairs, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 115–139, doi:10.1007/978-4-431-68370-4_8, ISBN 978-4-431-68372-8, retrieved 2023-09-27
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  10. ^ Table 1 in Yang, Lijuan; Yang, Kejun (2020). "Biological function of Klebsiella variicola and its effect on the rhizosphere soil of maize seedlings". PeerJ. 8: e9894. doi:10.7717/peerj.9894. PMC 7501803. PMID 32995084.
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  13. ^ Nickell, Louis G. (1982), "Axillary Buds", Plant Growth Regulators, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 45–46, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-68204-9_9 (inactive 1 November 2024), ISBN 978-3-642-68206-3, retrieved 2023-09-27{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
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  15. ^ Specification for percussive rock-drilling bits, rods and stems. Integral stems, BSI British Standards, doi:10.3403/30309158u (inactive 2 December 2024), retrieved 2023-09-27{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
  16. ^ Seed Dormancy. 2020. doi:10.3390/books978-3-03943-654-5. ISBN 978-3-03943-654-5.
  17. ^ Scerri, Eric (2013-07-18), "From Missing Elements to Synthetic Elements", A Tale of Seven Elements, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/oso/9780195391312.003.0015, ISBN 978-0-19-539131-2, retrieved 2023-09-27
  18. ^ Figure 6 in Liu, Wenting; Wang, Tianle; Zhang, Shuang; Ding, Lijun; Wei, Zhijun (2018). "Grazing influences Stipa breviflora seed germination in desert grasslands of the Inner Mongolia Plateau". PeerJ. 6: e4447. doi:10.7717/peerj.4447. PMC 5835349. PMID 29507838.
  19. ^ Animals Editorial Office (2021-01-27). "Acknowledgment to Reviewers of Animals in 2020". Animals. 11 (2): 313. doi:10.3390/ani11020313. ISSN 2076-2615. PMC 7911586.
  20. ^ "Weedy species, relics, and ghosts", The End of the Wild, The MIT Press, 2006, doi:10.7551/mitpress/2733.003.0003, ISBN 9780262300049, retrieved 2023-09-27
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  23. ^ Marques, Isabel; Nieto Feliner, Gonzalo; Martins-Loução, Maria Amélia; Fuertes Aguilar, Javier (2011-11-01). "Fitness in Narcissus hybrids: low fertility is overcome by early hybrid vigour, absence of exogenous selection and high bulb propagation". Journal of Ecology. 99 (6): 1508–1519. Bibcode:2011JEcol..99.1508M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01876.x. ISSN 1365-2745.
  24. ^ The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1974. pp. 726–. ISBN 978-0-85229-290-7.
  25. ^ Persad, Ralph (November 2014). Agricultural Science for the Caribbean 1. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 978-0-17-566394-1.
  26. ^ Red Onion. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. 2003. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.j372700.
  27. ^ Takamine, Kazunori (2019), "Sweet potato fermentation food (sweet potato shochu)", Sweet Potato, Elsevier, pp. 325–347, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813637-9.00012-0, ISBN 9780128136379, S2CID 182865693, retrieved 2023-09-27
  28. ^ "Ginger & Rosa". Ginger & Rosa. 2012. doi:10.5040/9781350922648.
  29. ^ Figure 3 in Zhang, Erjin; Shen, Wenyuan; Jiang, Weijie; Li, Wenlong; Wan, Xiaping; Yu, Xurun; Xiong, Fei (2023). "Research progress on the bulb expansion and starch enrichment in taro (Colocasia esculenta (L). Schott)". PeerJ. 11: e15400. doi:10.7717/peerj.15400. PMC 10257899. PMID 37309370.
  30. ^ Asfaw, Asrat; Agre, Paterne; Nwachukwu, Chidinma; Olasanmi, Bunmi; Obidiegwu, Jude; Nwachukwu, Emmanuel; Adebola, Patrick; De Koeyer, David (2020). "Sample Preservation and Plant Sex Prediction in White Guinea Yam (Dioscorea rotundata Poir.) Seedlings". Preprints. doi:10.20944/preprints202002.0187.v1.
  31. ^ Bessey, Charles Edwin; Webber, Herbert John (1890). Report of the Botanist on the Grasses and Forage Plants, and the Catalogue of Plants [of Nebraska]. State journal Company.
  32. ^ "geophyte, n.", Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 2023-03-02, doi:10.1093/oed/1063681943, retrieved 2023-09-27
  33. ^ Figure 3 in Wang, Hongfei; Shang, Qingmao (2020). "The combined effects of light intensity, temperature, and water potential on wall deposition in regulating hypocotyl elongation of Brassica rapa". PeerJ. 8: e9106. doi:10.7717/peerj.9106. PMC 7258941. PMID 32518720.
  34. ^ Classification of environmental conditions. Environmental conditions appearing in nature, BSI British Standards, doi:10.3403/bs7527, retrieved 2023-09-27
  35. ^ Brimacombe, J. S., ed. (1973), "Plant and algal polysaccharides", Carbohydrate Chemistry, vol. 6, Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, pp. 197–227, doi:10.1039/9781847552839-00197, ISBN 978-0-85186-052-7, retrieved 2023-09-27
  36. ^ Figure 3 in López-González, Cristal; Juárez-Colunga, Sheila; Morales-Elías, Norma Cecilia; Tiessen, Axel (2019). "Exploring regulatory networks in plants: Transcription factors of starch metabolism". PeerJ. 7: e6841. doi:10.7717/peerj.6841. PMC 6625501. PMID 31328026.
  37. ^ Finney, John (2015-08-27), "1. Water, water everywhere …", Water: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, pp. 1–13, doi:10.1093/actrade/9780198708728.003.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-870872-8, retrieved 2023-09-27
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