Julius Caesar: Difference between revisions
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Julius Caesar was an old man who died. He is worshipped throughout um...nowhere, and is basically worthless to worship. |
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{{Otheruses}} |
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He spent 10 years of his life in Gaul, wasting his time. |
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He was famous for...um....marrying three times. This is bad, people. Please do not copy. |
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Jonathan Wong thanks you. |
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{{Infobox Emperor |
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|name =Gaius Julius Cæsar |
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|title=[[Roman consul|Consul]]/[[Roman dictator|Dictator]] of the [[Roman Republic]] |
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|image =[[File:Giulio-cesare-enhanced 1-800x1450.jpg|230px]] |
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|caption =Bust of Julius Caesar |
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|full name =Gaius Julius Caesar |
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|reign =October 49 BC –<br />15 March 44 BC (as dictator and/or consul) |
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|consort =[[Cornelia Cinna minor]] 84–68 BC <br />[[Pompeia (wife of Julius Caesar)|Pompeia]] 68–63 BC <br />[[Calpurnia Pisonis]] 59–44 BC |
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|issue=[[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia Caesaris]] 85/84–54 BC<br />[[Caesarion]] 47–30 BC<br />[[Augustus]] 63 BC–AD 14 (grand-nephew, posthumously adopted as Caesar's son in 44 BC) |
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|royal house =[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty|Julio-Claudian]] |
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|father =[[Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC)|Gaius Julius Cæsar]] |
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|mother =[[Aurelia Cotta]]<ref>http://www.roman-colosseum.info/roman-empire/julius-caesar.htm</ref> |
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|date of birth =13 July 100 BC |
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|place of birth =[[Subura]], Rome |
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|date of death =15 March 44 BC (aged 55) |
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|place of death =[[Theater of Pompey#Curia, assassination of Caesar|Curia of Pompey]], Rome |
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|place of burial= |
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}} |
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| header1 = These articles cover the '''[[Portal:Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]]''' [[Comitium]] of the '''[[Roman Republic|Republican]]''' era |
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| data2 = '''[[Rostra]]''', '''[[Curia Hostilia]]''', '''[[Curia Julia]]''', '''[[Lapis Niger]]''' |
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| label3 = [[Roman politics|Politicians]]: |
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| data3 = '''[[Cicero]]''', '''[[Gaius Gracchus]]''', '''Julius Caesar''' |
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| label4 = [[Roman assemblies|Assemblies]]: |
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[[File:Julius Caesar Coustou Louvre MR1798.jpg|thumb|250px|Julius Cæsar by [[Nicolas Coustou]], a sculpture commissioned in 1696 for the Gardens of Versailles, to go with the statue of Hannibal by Sébastien Slodtz.]] |
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'''Gaius Julius Cæsar/Caesar'''<ref name="name">Fully, ''Caius Iulius Caii filius Caii nepos Caesar Imperator'' ("Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius, Imperator"). Official name after [[deification]] in 42 BC: ''Divus Iulius'' ("The Divine Julius").</ref> ({{IPA-la|ˈɡaːjjʊs juːliʊs ˈkajsar|classical}}; {{IPA-en|ˈɡaɪ.əs ˈdʒuːli.əs ˈsiːzər|lang}}; 13 July 100 BC<ref>There is some dispute over the date of Caesar's birth. The day is sometimes stated to be 12 July when his feast-day was celebrated after deification, but this was because his true birthday clashed with the ''[[Ludi Apollinares]]''. Some scholars, based on the dates he held certain magistracies, have made a case for 101 or 102 BC as the year of his birth, but scholarly consensus favours 100 BC. Goldsworthy, 30</ref> – 15 March 44 BC)<ref>After Caesar's death the leap years were not inserted according to his intent and there is uncertainty about when leap years were observed between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive; the dates in this article between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive are those observed in Rome and there is an uncertainty of about a day as to where those dates would be on the [[proleptic Julian calendar]]. See Blackburn, B and Holford-Strevens, L. (1999 corrected 2003). ''The Oxford Companion to the Year''. Oxford University Press. p. 671. ISBN 978-0-19-214231-3</ref> was a [[Roman Republic|Roman]] [[military]] and [[political]] leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the [[Roman Republic]] into the [[Roman Empire]]. |
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As a politician, Caesar made use of [[populares|popularist]] tactics. During the late 60s and into the 50s BC, he formed political alliances that led to the so-called [[First Triumvirate]], an [[wikt:extralegal|extra-legal]] arrangement with [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] and [[Pompey|Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (Pompey the Great) that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Their [[political faction|factional]] attempts to amass power for themselves were opposed within the [[Roman Senate]] by the ''[[optimates]]'', among them [[Cato the Younger|Marcus Porcius Cato]] and [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]], with the sometime support of [[Marcus Tullius Cicero]]. Caesar's conquest of [[Gaul]] extended the Roman world to the [[North Sea]], and in 55 BC he also conducted the first [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|Roman invasion of Britain]]. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse Pompey's, while the [[Battle of Carrhae|death of Crassus]] contributed to increasing political tensions between the two triumviral survivors. Political realignments in Rome finally led to a stand-off between Caesar and Pompey, the latter having taken up the cause of the Senate. With the order that sent his legions across the [[Rubicon]], Caesar began a [[Caesar's civil war|civil war]] in 49 BC from which he emerged as the unrivaled leader of the Roman world. |
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After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "[[Roman dictator|dictator]] in perpetuity" (''[[dictator perpetuus|dictator perpetuo]]''). A group of senators, led by [[Marcus Junius Brutus]], assassinated the dictator on the [[Ides of March]] (15 March) 44 BC, hoping to restore the normal running of the Republic. However, the result was another [[Roman civil war]], which ultimately led to the establishment of a permanent [[autocracy]] by Caesar's adopted heir, [[Augustus|Gaius Octavianus]]. In 42 BC, two years after his assassination, the Senate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the [[Roman mythology|Roman deities]]. |
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Much of Caesar's life is known from his own [[Julius Caesar#Literary works|''Commentaries'']] (''Commentarii'') on his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources such as the letters and speeches of his political rival [[Cicero]], the historical writings of [[Sallust]], and the poetry of [[Catullus]]. Many more details of his life are recorded by later historians, such as [[Appian]], [[Suetonius]], [[Plutarch]], [[Cassius Dio]] and [[Strabo]]. |
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==Early life== |
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Caesar was born into a [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] family, the ''[[gens]] [[Julius|Julia]]'', which claimed descent from [[Ascanius|Iulus]], son of the legendary [[Troy|Trojan]] prince [[Aeneas]], supposedly the son of the goddess [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Froude|first=James Anthony|authorlink=James Anthony Froude|title=Life of Caesar|publisher=Project Gutenberg e-text|year=1879|page=67|url=http://www.mirrorservice.org/sites/ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext05/8cesr10.txt}} See also: [[Suetonius]], ''[[Lives of the Twelve Caesars]]'': ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#6 6]; [[Velleius Paterculus]], ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#41 2.41]; [[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]''</ref> The ''[[cognomen]]'' "Caesar" originated, according to [[Pliny the Elder]], with an ancestor who was born by [[caesarean section]] (from the Latin verb to cut, ''caedere'', ''caes-'').<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]], ''Natural History'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+7.7 7.7]. The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century (''[[Suda]]'' [http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1&field=adlerhw_gr&searchstr=kappa%2C1199 kappa 1199]). Julius wasn't the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar's mother, [[Aurelia Cotta|Aurelia]], lived long after he was born.</ref> The ''[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]]'' suggests three [[Etymology of the name of Julius Caesar|alternative explanations]]: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin ''caesaries''); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin ''oculis caesiis''); or that he killed an elephant (''caesai'' in Moorish) in battle.<ref>''[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]]'': ''Aelius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Aelius*.html#2 2].</ref> Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.aol.com/dkaplan888/jcae.htm|title=Coins of Julius Caesar}}</ref> |
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Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, having produced only three [[Roman consul|consuls]]. Caesar's father, also called [[Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC)|Gaius Julius Caesar]], reached the rank of [[praetor]], the second highest of the Republic's elected magistracies, and governed the province of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], perhaps through the influence of his prominent brother-in-law [[Gaius Marius]].<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#1 1]; [[Plutarch]], ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1 1], ''Marius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Marius*.html#6 6]; Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+7.54 7.54]; ''Inscriptiones Italiae'', 13.3.51–52</ref> His mother, [[Aurelia Cotta]], came from an influential family which had produced several consuls. [[Marcus Antonius Gnipho]], an orator and grammarian of [[Gaul]]ish origin, was employed as Caesar's tutor.<ref>Suetonius, ''Lives of Eminent Grammarians'' [[s:Lives of Eminent Grammarians#7|7]]</ref> Caesar had two sisters, both called [[Julia Caesaris (sister of Julius Caesar)|Julia]]. Little else is recorded of Caesar's childhood. [[Suetonius]] and [[Plutarch]]'s biographies of him both begin abruptly in Caesar's teens; the opening paragraphs of both appear to be lost.<ref name="plutsuet1">Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1 1]; Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#1 1]</ref> |
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Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. The [[Social War (91–88 BC)|Social War]] was fought from 91 to 88 BC between Rome and her Italian allies over the issue of [[Roman citizenship]], while [[Mithridates VI of Pontus|Mithridates]] of [[Pontus]] threatened Rome's eastern provinces. Domestically, Roman politics was divided between politicians known as ''[[optimates]]'' and ''[[populares]]''. The ''optimates'' were conservative,<ref name=greenblatt>Greenblatt, Miriam. 2005. Julius Caesar and the Roman Republic. P.10</ref><ref name=mackay/><ref name=tempora/> defended the interests of the upper class<ref name=mackay>Mackay, Christopher S. Ancient Rome: a military and political history. P.171</ref><ref name=tempora>Shapiro, Susan O. 2005. O tempora! O mores!: Cicero's Catilinarian orations: a student's edition with historical essays. P.129</ref> and used and promoted the authority of the Senate;<ref name=morstein>Morstein-Marx, Robert. 2004. Mass oratory and political power in the late Roman Republic. P.204-205</ref> the ''populares'' advocated reform in the interests of the masses<ref name=greenblatt/><ref name=tempora/> and used and promoted the authority of the Popular Assemblies.<ref name=mackay/><ref name=morstein/> Caesar's uncle Marius was a ''popularis'', Marius' protégé [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] was an ''optimas''<!-- not "optimus", as one would think! -->, and in Caesar's youth their rivalry led to civil war. |
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Both Marius and Sulla distinguished themselves in the Social War, and both wanted command of the war against Mithridates, which was initially given to Sulla; but when Sulla left the city to take command of his army, a [[tribune]] passed a law transferring the appointment to Marius. Sulla responded by marching his army on Rome (the first time ever this had happened and a pointer for Caesar in his later career as he contemplated crossing the Rubicon), reclaiming his command and forcing Marius into exile, but when he left on campaign Marius returned at the head of a makeshift army. He and his ally [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna]] seized the city and declared Sulla a public enemy, and Marius's troops took violent revenge on Sulla's supporters. Marius died early in 86 BC, but his followers remained in power.<ref>[[Appian]], ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/1*.html#34 1.34–75]; Plutarch, ''Marius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Marius*.html#32 32–46], ''Sulla'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sulla*.html#6 6–10]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2A*.html#15 2.15–20]; [[Eutropius]] [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans5.html 5]; [[Florus]], ''Epitome of Roman History'' [[s:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#6|2.6]], [[s:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9|2.9]]</ref> |
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In 85 BC Caesar's father died suddenly while putting on his shoes one morning, without any apparent cause,<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#1 1]; Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+7.54 7.54]</ref> and at sixteen, Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new ''[[Flamen Dialis]]'', high priest of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], as [[Lucius Cornelius Merula (consul 87 BC)|Merula]], the previous incumbent, had died in Marius's purges.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2A*.html#22 2.22]; Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History'' [[s:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9|2.9]]</ref> Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to Cossutia, a plebeian girl of wealthy [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] family he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Cinna's daughter [[Cornelia Cinna minor|Cornelia]].<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#1 1]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1 1]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#41 2.41]</ref> |
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Then, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to finish the civil war against Marius' followers. After a campaign throughout Italy he seized Rome at the [[Battle of the Colline Gate]] in November 82 BC and had himself appointed to the revived office of [[Roman dictator|dictator]]; but whereas a dictator was traditionally appointed for six months at a time, Sulla's appointment had no term limit. Statues of Marius were destroyed and Marius' body was exhumed and thrown in the Tiber. Cinna was already dead, killed by his own soldiers in a mutiny.<ref>Appian, ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/1*.html#76 1.76–102]; Plutarch, ''Sulla'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sulla*.html#24 24–33]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2A*.html#23 2.23–28]; Eutropius, ''Abridgement of Roman History'' [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans5.html 5]; Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History'' [[s:Epitome of Roman History/Book 2#9|2.9]]</ref> Sulla's [[proscription]]s saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the [[Vestal Virgins]]. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.<ref name="plutsuet1" /> |
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==Early career== |
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Feeling it much safer to be far away from Sulla should the Dictator change his mind, Caesar quit Rome and joined the army, serving under [[Marcus Minucius Thermus]] in [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]] and [[Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 79 BC)|Servilius Isauricus]] in [[Cilicia]]. He served with distinction, winning the [[Civic Crown]] for his part in the siege of [[Mytilene]]. On a mission to [[Bithynia]] to secure the assistance of King [[Nicomedes IV of Bithynia|Nicomedes's]] fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an affair with the king arose, which would persist for the rest of his life.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#2 2–3]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#2 2–3]; [[Cassius Dio]], ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/43*.html#20 43.20]</ref> Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career: the ''Flamen Dialis'' was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.<ref>William Smith, ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'': ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Flamen.html Flamen]''</ref> |
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At the end of 81 BC, [[Sulla]] resigned his dictatorship, re-established consular government and, after serving as consul in 80 BC, retired to private life.<ref>Appian. ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/1*.html#103 1.103]</ref> In a manner that the historian [[Suetonius]] thought arrogant, Julius Caesar would later mock Sulla for resigning the Dictatorship—"Sulla did not know his political ABC's".<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#77 77].</ref> He died two years later in 78 BC and was accorded a state funeral.<ref>Plutarch, ''Sulla'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sulla*.html#36 36–38]</ref> Hearing of Sulla's death, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in the [[Subura]], a lower-class neighbourhood of Rome.<ref name="suet46">Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#46 46]</ref> His return coincided with an attempted anti-Sullan coup by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus but Caesar, lacking confidence in Lepidus's leadership, did not participate.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#3 3]; Appian, ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/1*.html#107 1.107]</ref> Instead he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for [[extortion]] and [[Political corruption|corruption]]. Even [[Cicero]] praised him: "Come now, what orator would you rank above him...?"<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#55 55]</ref> Aiming at [[rhetoric]]al perfection, Caesar travelled to [[Rhodes]] in 75 BC to study under [[Apollonius Molon]], who had previously taught Cicero.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#4 4]. Plutarch (''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#3 3–4]) reports the same events but follows a different chronology.</ref> |
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On the way across the [[Aegean Sea]],<ref>Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#4 4]). Plutarch (''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1.8 1.8–2]) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#41.3 2:41.3–42]) says merely that it happened when he was a young man.</ref> Caesar was kidnapped by [[Cilicia]]n (not to be confused with [[Sicily|Sicilian]]) [[piracy|pirates]] and held prisoner in the [[Dodecanese]] islet of [[Farmakos|Pharmacusa]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 1–2</ref> He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty [[talent (weight)|talents]] of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty.<ref>{{cite book |title=Julius Caesar: Conqueror and Dictator |author=Thorne, James |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2003 |page=15}}</ref><ref>Freeman, 39</ref> After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them in [[Pergamon]]. Marcus Junctus, the governor of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]], refused to execute them as Caesar demanded, preferring to sell them as slaves,<ref>Freeman, 39–40</ref> but Caesar returned to the coast and had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity<ref>Freeman, 40</ref>—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He then proceeded to Rhodes, but was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliaries]] to repel an incursion from Pontus. |
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On his return to Rome he was elected military [[tribune]], a first step on the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' of Roman politics. The [[Third Servile War|war]] against [[Spartacus]] took place around this time (73–71 BC), but it is not recorded what role, if any, Caesar played in it. He was elected [[quaestor]] for 69 BC,<ref>Freeman, 51</ref> and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, widow of Marius, and included images of Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the funeral procession. His own wife Cornelia also died that year.<ref>Freeman, 52</ref> After her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in [[Hispania]] under Antistius Vetus.<ref>Goldsworthy, 100</ref> While there he is said to have encountered a statue of [[Alexander the Great]], and realised with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. He requested, and was granted, an early discharge from his duties, and returned to Roman politics. On his return in 67 BC,<ref>Goldsworthy, 101</ref> he married [[Pompeia (wife of Julius Caesar)|Pompeia]], a granddaughter of Sulla.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#5 5–8]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#5 5]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#43 2.43]</ref> He was elected [[aedile]] and restored the trophies of Marius's victories; a controversial move given the Sullan regime was still in place. He also brought prosecutions against men who had benefited from Sulla's proscriptions, and spent a great deal of borrowed money on public works and games, outshining his colleague [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]]. He was also suspected of involvement in two abortive coup attempts.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#9 9–11]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#5.6 5.6–6]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html#8 37.8], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html#10 10]</ref> |
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===Coming to prominence=== |
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[[File:0092 - Wien - Kunsthistorisches Museum - Gaius Julius Caesar.jpg|thumb|250px|His bust in the [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]], [[Vienna]].]] |
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63 BC was an eventful year for Caesar. He persuaded a tribune, [[Titus Labienus]], to prosecute the optimate senator [[Gaius Rabirius (senator)|Gaius Rabirius]] for the political murder, 37 years previously, of the tribune [[Lucius Appuleius Saturninus]], and had himself appointed as one of the two judges to try the case. Rabirius was defended by both [[Cicero]] and [[Quintus Hortensius]], but was convicted of ''[[perduellio]]'' (treason). While he was exercising his right of appeal to the people, the praetor [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer (consul)|Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer]] adjourned the assembly by taking down the military flag from the Janiculum hill. Labienus could have resumed the prosecution at a later session, but did not do so: Caesar's point had been made, and the matter was allowed to drop.<ref>[[Cicero]], ''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Cic.+Rab.+Perd.+1 For Gaius Rabirius]''; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html#26 26–28]</ref> Labienus would remain an important ally of Caesar over the next decade. |
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The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of [[Pontifex Maximus]], chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius]], who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. He ran against two powerful ''optimates'', the former consuls [[Quintus Lutatius Catulus (Capitolinus)|Quintus Lutatius Catulus]] and [[Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 79 BCE)|Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus]]. There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar is said to have told his mother on the morning of the election that he would return as Pontifex Maximus or not at all, expecting to be forced into exile by the enormous debts he had run up to fund his campaign. In any event he won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing, possibly because the two older men split their votes.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#43 2.43]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#7 7]; Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#13 13]</ref> The post came with an official residence on the [[Via Sacra]].<ref name="suet46" /> |
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When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed [[Catiline]]'s conspiracy to seize control of the republic, Catulus and others accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.<ref>[[Sallust]], ''Catiline War'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#49 49]</ref> Caesar, who had been elected praetor for the following year, took part in the debate in the Senate on how to deal with the conspirators. During the debate, Caesar was passed a note. [[Cato the Younger|Marcus Porcius Cato]], who would become his most implacable political opponent, accused him of corresponding with the conspirators, and demanded that the message be read aloud. Caesar passed him the note, which, embarrassingly, turned out to be a love letter from Cato's half-sister [[Servilia Caepionis|Servilia]]. Caesar argued persuasively against the death penalty for the conspirators, proposing life imprisonment instead, but a speech by Cato proved decisive, and the conspirators were executed.<ref>Cicero, ''Against Catiline'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Cic.+Catil.+4.7 4.7–9]; Sallust, ''Catiline War'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#50 50–55]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#7.5 7.5–8.3], ''Cicero'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero*.html#20 20–21], ''Cato the Younger'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cato_Minor*.html#22 22–24]; Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#14 14]</ref> The following year a commission was set up to investigate the conspiracy, and Caesar was again accused of complicity. On Cicero's evidence that he had reported what he knew of the plot voluntarily, however, he was cleared, and one of his accusers, and also one of the commissioners, were sent to prison.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#17 17]</ref> |
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While praetor in 62 BC, Caesar supported Metellus Celer, now tribune, in proposing controversial legislation, and the pair were so obstinate they were suspended from office by the Senate. Caesar attempted to continue to perform his duties, only giving way when violence was threatened. The Senate was persuaded to reinstate him after he quelled public demonstrations in his favour.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#16 16]</ref> |
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That year the festival of the [[Bona Dea]] ("good goddess") was held at Caesar's house. No men were permitted to attend, but a young patrician named [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]] managed to gain admittance disguised as a woman, apparently for the purpose of seducing Caesar's wife [[Pompeia (wife of Julius Caesar)|Pompeia]]. He was caught and prosecuted for sacrilege. Caesar gave no evidence against Clodius at his trial, careful not to offend one of the most powerful patrician families of Rome, and Clodius was acquitted after rampant bribery and intimidation. Nevertheless, Caesar divorced Pompeia, saying that "my wife ought not even to be under suspicion."<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' [[s:Letters to Atticus/1.12|1.12]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/1.13|1.13]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/1.14|1.14]]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#9 9–10]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html#45 37.45]</ref> |
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After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern [[Hispania Ulterior]] (Outer [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]]), but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of [[Pompey]], Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Hispania he conquered the [[Callaici]] and [[Lusitanians|Lusitani]], being hailed as ''[[imperator]]'' by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#11 11–12]; Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#18 18.1]</ref> |
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Being hailed as ''imperator'' entitled Caesar to a [[Roman triumph|triumph]]. However, he also wanted to stand for [[consul]], the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand ''in absentia'', but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.<ref>Plutarch, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#13 13]; Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#18.2 18.2]</ref> |
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==First consulship and triumvirate== |
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{{Main|First Triumvirate}} |
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Three candidates stood for the consulship: Caesar, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who had been aedile with Caesar several years earlier, and [[Lucius Lucceius]]. The election was dirty. Caesar canvassed Cicero for support, and made an alliance with the wealthy Lucceius, but the establishment threw its financial weight behind the conservative Bibulus, and even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in his favour. Caesar and Bibulus were elected as consuls for 59 BC.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#13 13–14]; Suetonius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#19 19]</ref> |
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Caesar was already in [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus's]] political debt, but he also made overtures to [[Pompey]], who was unsuccessfully fighting the Senate for ratification of his eastern settlements and farmland for his veterans. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds since they were consuls together in 70 BC, and Caesar knew if he allied himself with one he would lose the support of the other, so he endeavoured to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the [[First Triumvirate]] (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]].<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.1|2.1]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.3|2.3]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.17|2.17]]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#44 2.44]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#13 13–14], ''Pompey'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#47 47], ''Crassus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html#14 14]; Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#19.2 19.2]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html#54 37.54–58]</ref> Caesar also married again, this time [[Calpurnia Pisonis|Calpurnia]], daughter of [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus]], who was elected to the consulship for the following year.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#21 21]</ref> |
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Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His [[lictor]]s had their ''[[fasces]]'' broken, two tribunes accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus himself had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.15|2.15]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.16|2.16]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.17|2.17]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.18|2.18]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.19|2.19]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.20|2.20]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/2.21|2.21]]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#44.4 44.4]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#14 14], ''Pompey'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#47 47–48], ''Cato the Younger'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cato_Minor*.html#32 32–33]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/38*.html#1 38.1–8]</ref> |
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This also gave rise to this lampoon- |
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''The event occurred, as I recall, when Caesar governed Rome-'' |
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''Caesar, not Bibulus, who kept his seat at home''. |
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When Caesar and Bibulus were first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit Caesar's future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than governorship of a province, as their proconsular duties after their year of office was over.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#19.2 19.2]</ref> With the help of Piso and Pompey, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern [[Cisalpine Gaul]] (northern Italy) and [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] (the western Balkans), with [[Transalpine Gaul]] (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. The term of his proconsulship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#44.4 2:44.4]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#14.10 14.10], ''Crassus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html#14.3 14.3], ''Pompey'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#48 48], ''Cato the Younger'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cato_Minor*.html#33.3 33.3]; Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#22 22]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/38*.html#8.5 38:8.5]</ref> When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#23 23]</ref> |
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===Conquest of Gaul=== |
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{{Main|Gallic Wars}} |
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Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a provincial governor, whether by extortion<ref>See Cicero's speeches [[s:Against Verres|against Verres]] for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province's expense.</ref> or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces, [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] and [[Gallia Narbonensis]], bordered on unconquered territory, and independent Gaul was known to be unstable. Rome's allies the [[Aedui]] had been defeated by their Gallic rivals, with the help of a contingent of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Suebi]] under [[Ariovistus]], who had settled in conquered Aeduan land, and the [[Helvetii]] were mobilising for a mass migration, which the Romans feared had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated first the Helvetii, then Ariovistus, and left his army in winter quarters in the territory of the Sequani, signaling that his interest in the lands outside Gallia Narbonensis would not be temporary.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' [[s:Letters to Atticus/1.19|1.19]]; Julius Caesar, ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|Commentaries on the Gallic War]]'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1|Book 1]]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_gallic_1.html Epit. 3]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/38*.html#31 38.31–50]</ref> |
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[[File:RomanSilverDenariusWithHeadOfCaptiveGaul48BCE.JPG|thumb|left|Roman silver [[Denarius]] with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the campaigns of Caesar]] |
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He began his second year with double the military strength he had begun with, having raised another two legions in Cisalpine Gaul during the winter. The legality of this was dubious, as the Cisalpine Gauls were not Roman citizens. In response to Caesar's activities the previous year, the [[Belgae|Belgic]] tribes of north-eastern Gaul had begun to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against a united Belgic army, conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one legion, commanded by Crassus' son Publius, began the conquest of the tribes of the [[Armorica|Armorican peninsula]].<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 2|Book 2]]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_gallic_1.html Epit. 4]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/39*.html#1 39.1–5]</ref> |
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During the spring of 56 BC the Triumvirate held a conference at Luca (modern [[Lucca]]) in Cisalpine Gaul. Rome was in turmoil, and [[Publius Clodius Pulcher|Clodius']] populist campaigns had been undermining relations between Crassus and Pompey. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's proconsulship for another five years. Crassus and Pompey would be consuls again, with similarly long-term proconsulships to follow: Syria for Crassus, the Hispanian provinces for Pompey.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to his brother Quintus'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Cic.+Q.+fr.+2.3 2.3]; Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#24 24]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#21 21], ''Crassus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html#14 14–15], ''Pompey'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#51 51]</ref> The conquest of Armorica was completed when Caesar defeated the [[Veneti (Gaul)|Veneti]] in a naval battle, while young Crassus conquered the [[Aquitani]] of the south-west. By the end of campaigning in 56 BC only the [[Morini]] and [[Menapii]] of the coastal Low Countries still held out.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3|Book 3]]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/39*.html#40 39.40–46]</ref> |
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In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by the Germanic [[Usipetes]] and [[Tencteri]], and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued the Morini and Menapii, he crossed to Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. His intelligence was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the Kent coast he was unable to advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 4|Book 4]]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_gallic_1.html Epit. 4]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/39*.html#47 47–53]</ref> He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, establishing [[Mandubracius]] of the [[Trinovantes]] as a friendly king and bringing his rival, [[Cassivellaunus]], to terms. But poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, led by [[Ambiorix]] of the [[Eburones]], forcing Caesar to campaign through the winter and into the following year. With the defeat of Ambiorix, Caesar believed Gaul was now pacified.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to friends'' [[s:Letters to friends/7.6|7.6]], [[s:Letters to friends/7.7|7.7]], [[s:Letters to friends/7.8|7.8]], [[s:Letters to friends/7.10|7.10]], [[s:Letters to friends/7.17|7.17]]; ''Letters to his brother Quintus'' [[s:Letters to his brother Quintus/2.13|2.13]], [[s:Letters to his brother Quintus/2.15|2.15]], [[s:Letters to his brother Quintus/3.1|3.1]]; ''Letters to Atticus'' [[s:Letters to Atticus/4.15|4.15]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/4.17|4.17]], [[s:Letters to Atticus/4.18|4.18]]; Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 5|Book 5–6]]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/40*.html#1 40.1–11]</ref> |
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While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to resecure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece [[Octavia Minor|Octavia]] in marriage, alienating Octavia's husband [[Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor|Gaius Marcellus]], but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed [[invasion]] of [[Parthia]]. Rome was on the edge of violence. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married [[Cornelia Metella|Cornelia]], daughter of Caesar's political opponent Quintus Metellus Scipio, whom he invited to become his consular colleague once order was restored. The Triumvirate was dead.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#26]; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#23.5 23.5], ''Pompey'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#53 53–55], ''Crassus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html#16 16–33]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#46 46–47]</ref> |
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[[File:Siege-alesia-vercingetorix-jules-cesar.jpg|300px|thumb|''[[Vercingetorix]] surrenders to Caesar'', by [[Lionel Royer]] |left]] |
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In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by [[Vercingetorix]] of the [[Arverni]]. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements including the [[Battle of Gergovia]], but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the [[Battle of Alesia]] finally forced his surrender.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7|Book 7]]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/40*.html#33 40.33–42]</ref> Despite scattered outbreaks of [[List of Roman battles|warfare]] the following year,<ref>[[Aulus Hirtius]], ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 8|Book 8]]</ref> Gaul was effectively conquered. |
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[[Titus Labienus]] was Caesar's most senior [[legatus|legate]] during his Gallic campaigns, having the status of [[propraetor]].<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 1#21|1.21]]</ref> Other prominent men who served under him included his relative [[Lucius Julius Caesar]],<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7#65|7.65]]</ref> Crassus' sons [[Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir)|Publius]]<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 2#34|2.34]]</ref> and [[Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir)#Marcus, surviving brother|Marcus]],<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#6|6.6]]</ref> Cicero's brother [[Quintus Tullius Cicero|Quintus]],<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 6#32|6.32f]].</ref> [[Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus|Decimus Brutus]],<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 3#11|3.11]]</ref> and [[Mark Antony]].<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' [[s:Commentaries on the Gallic War/Book 7#81|7.81f]].</ref> |
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Plutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men in the course of the [[Gallic Wars]], of whom 1 million died, and another million were [[History of slavery|enslaved]]. 300 tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/lives/chapter48.html|title=Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, by Plutarch (chapter48)}}</ref> Almost the entire population of the city of [[Avaricum]] (Bourges) (40,000 in all) was slaughtered.<ref>{{citebook|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10657/10657.txt|title="De Bello Gallico" & Other Commentaries of Caius Julius Caesar|chapter=Chapter 28|edition=Translated by [[Thomas de Quincey]]}}</ref> Julius Caesar reports that 368,000 of the [[Helvetii]] left home, of whom 92,000 could bear arms, and only 110,000 returned after the campaign.<ref>{{citebook|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10657/10657.txt|title="De Bello Gallico" & Other Commentaries of Caius Julius Caesar|chapter=Chapter 29|edition=Translated by [[Thomas de Quincey]]}}</ref> However, in view of the difficulty of finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common gross exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the totals of enemy combatants in particular are likely to be far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting Helvetii extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants.<ref>Furger-Gunti, 102.</ref> Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of ca. 30,000 men.<ref>H. Delbrück ''Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte'', Vol. 1, 1900, pp. 428 and 459f.</ref> |
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==Civil war== |
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{{Main|Caesar's civil war}} |
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[[File:Gaius Julius Caesar.jpg|thumb|An engraving depicting Gaius Julius Caesar.]] |
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In 50 BC, the Senate, led by [[Pompey]], ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as Proconsul had finished.<ref name=Sue28>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#28 28]</ref> Moreover, the Senate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship ''in absentia''.<ref name=Sue28/> Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and politically marginalised if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a Consul or without the power of his army. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On 10 January 49 BC Caesar crossed the [[Rubicon]] river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only [[Legio XIII Gemina|one legion]] and ignited [[Caesar's civil war|civil war]]. Upon [[crossing the Rubicon]], Plutarch reports that Caesar quoted the Athenian playwright [[Menander]] in Greek, saying ''ἀνερρίφθω κύβος'' (let the dice be tossed).<ref name=Plu65>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#60 60.2]</ref> Suetonius gives the Latin approximation ''[[alea iacta est]]'' (the die is tossed).<ref name=Sue32>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#32 32]</ref> |
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The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled to the south, having little confidence in the newly raised troops especially since so many cities in northern Italy had voluntarily surrendered. An attempted stand by a consulate legion in Samarium resulted in the consul being handed over by the defenders and the legion surrendering without significant fighting. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his [[Legio XIII Gemina|Thirteenth Legion]] with him, Pompey had no intention of fighting. Caesar pursued Pompey to [[Brindisi]]um, hoping to capture Pompey before the trapped Senate and their legions could escape.<ref name=Plu35>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#35 35.2]</ref> Pompey managed to elude him, sailing out of the harbour before Caesar could break the barricades. |
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Lacking a [[navy|naval force]] since Pompey had already scoured the coasts of all ships for evacuation of his forces, Caesar decided to head for Hispania saying "I set forth to fight an army without a leader, so as later to fight a leader without an army." Leaving [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] as prefect of Rome, and the rest of Italy under [[Mark Antony]] as tribune, Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to [[Hispania]], rejoining two of his Gallic legions, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece where on 10 July 48 BC at [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|Dyrrhachium]] Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat when the line of fortification was broken. He decisively defeated Pompey, despite Pompey's numerical advantage (nearly twice the number of infantry and considerably more cavalry), at [[Battle of Pharsalus|Pharsalus]] in an exceedingly short engagement in 48 BC.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#42 42–45]</ref> |
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In Rome, Caesar was appointed [[Roman dictator|dictator]],<ref name=Plu37>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#37 37.2]</ref> with [[Mark Antony]] as his [[Master of the Horse]]; Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulate (with [[Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 48 BCE)|Publius Servilius Vatia]] as his colleague) and then, after eleven days, resigned this dictatorate.<ref name=Plu37/><ref name="Dictator">Martin Jehne, ''Der Staat des Dicators Caesar'', Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15-38.</ref> |
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[[File:Cleopatra and Caesar by Jean-Leon-Gerome.jpg|left|upright|thumb|''Cleopatra Before Caesar'' by the artist [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1866.]] |
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He pursued Pompey to [[Alexandria]], where Pompey was murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of [[Ptolemy XIII of Egypt|King Ptolemy XIII]].<ref name=PluPom77>Plutarch, ''Pompey'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#77 77–79]</ref> Caesar then became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the [[Pharaoh]] [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra VII]]. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head,<ref>Plutarch, ''Pompey'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html#80 80.5]</ref> which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain [[Pothinus]] as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BC in the [[Battle of the Nile (47 BC)|Battle of the Nile]] and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory of the Alexandrine civil war with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs. |
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Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as Roman Law only recognised marriages between two Roman citizens. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery – and may have fathered a son called [[Caesarion]]. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the [[Tiber]]. |
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Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed Dictator, with a term of one year.<ref name="Dictator"/> After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated King [[Pharnaces II of Pontus]] in the [[Battle of Zela]]; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#35 35.2]</ref> Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory at [[Battle of Thapsus|Thapsus]] in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who committed suicide).<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#52 52–54]</ref> After this victory, he was appointed [[Roman dictator|Dictator for ten years]].<ref>Martin Jehne, ''Der Staat des Dicators Caesar'', Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15-38. Technically, Caesar was not appointed Dictator with a term of ten years but he was appointed annual dictator for the next ten years in advance.</ref> |
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Nevertheless, Pompey's sons [[Gnaeus Pompeius]] and [[Sextus Pompeius]], together with [[Titus Labienus]], Caesar's former propraetorian legate (''[[legatus]] [[promagistrates|propraetore]]'') and second in command in the Gallic War, escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the [[Battle of Munda]] in March 45 BC.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#56 56]</ref> During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]) and 45 BC (without colleague). |
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===Aftermath of the civil war=== |
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While he was still campaigning in [[Hispania]], the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar ''in absentia''. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. |
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Great games and celebrations were held on 21 April to honour Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#56 56.7–56.8]</ref> |
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[[File:RSC 0022.jpg|thumb|Caesar was the first to print his own bust on a [[Roman coins|Roman minted coin]].]] |
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On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew [[Augustus|Gaius Octavius]] (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] would be the next heir in succession. |
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Caesar tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History | author = Mackay, Christopher S. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2004 | page = 254}}</ref> From 47 to 44 he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337 | author = Campbell, J. B. | publisher = Routledge | year = 1994 | page = 10}}</ref> |
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In 63 BC Caesar had been elected [[Pontifex Maximus]], and one of his roles as such was settling the calendar. A complete overhaul of the old [[Roman calendar]] proved to be one of his most long lasting and influential reforms. In 46 BC, Caesar established a 365-day year with a leap year every fourth year.<ref name=Sue40>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#40 40]</ref> (This [[Julian calendar]] was subsequently modified by [[Pope Gregory XIII]] in 1582 into the modern [[Gregorian calendar]].) As a result of this reform, a certain Roman year (mostly equivalent to 46 BC in the modern calendar) was made 445 days long, to bring the calendar into line with the seasons.<ref name=Sue40/> The month of July is named after Julius in his honour.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#76 76]</ref> The [[Forum of Caesar]], with its [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]], was built among many other public works. |
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==Assassination== |
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[[File:Caesars-tod 1-640x386.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The [[Roman Senate|senator]]s encircle Caesar.]] |
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{{See also|Assassination of Julius Caesar}} |
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On the [[Ides of March]] (15 March; see [[Roman calendar]]) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate. [[Mark Antony]], having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified ''Liberator'' named [[Servilius Casca]], and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid, had arranged for [[Trebonius]] to intercept him just as he approached the portico of [[Theatre of Pompey]], where the session was to be held, and detain him outside. (Plutarch, however, assigns this action to delay Antony to [[Brutus Albinus]].) When he heard the commotion from the senate chamber, Antony fled.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huzar|first=Eleanor Goltz|title=Mark Antony, a biography By Eleanor Goltz Huzar|publisher=Univesity of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis, MN|date=1978|pages=79–80|isbn=9780816608638}}</ref> |
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According to [[Plutarch]], as Caesar arrived at the Senate [[Tillius Cimber]] presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/m_brutus.html |title=Plutarch - Life of Brutus |publisher=Classics.mit.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-04-28}}</ref> The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and [[Suetonius]] say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's [[tunic]]. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("''Ista quidem vis est!''").<ref name = "suetonius">{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-julius.html |title=Suetonius, ''Life of the Caesars, Julius'' trans. J C Rolfe |publisher=Fordham.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-04-28}}</ref> At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to [[Plutarch]], he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?"<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Caesar'', ch. 66: "{{Polytonic|ὁ μεν πληγείς, Ῥωμαιστί· 'Μιαρώτατε Κάσκα, τί ποιεῖς;}}'"</ref> Casca, frightened, shouted "Help, brother!" in Greek ("{{Polytonic|ἀδελφέ, βοήθει!}}", "''adelphe, boethei!''"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to [[Eutropius]], around sixty or more men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times.<ref>Woolf Greg (2006), ''Et Tu Brute? – The Murder of Caesar and Political Assassination'', 199 pages – ISBN 1-86197-741-7</ref> According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'', c. 82.</ref> |
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The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "{{Polytonic|καὶ σύ, τέκνον;}}"<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#82.2 82.2]</ref> (transliterated as "''Kai su, teknon?''": "You too, child?" in English). However, Suetonius himself says Caesar said nothing.<ref name = "suetonius" /> Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#66.9 66.9]</ref> The version best known in the English-speaking world is the [[Latin language|Latin]] phrase "''[[Et tu, Brute?]]''" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus?");<ref>{{cite book|last=Stone|first=Jon R.|title=The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=2005|page=250|isbn=0415969093}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Morwood|first=James|title=The Pocket Oxford Latin Dictionary (Latin-English)|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|year=1994|chapter=|isbn=0198602839 }}</ref> this derives from Shakespeare's ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'', where it actually forms the first half of a [[macaronic]] line: "''Et tu, Brute?'' Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin here is not from any assertion that Caesar would have been using the language, rather than the Greek reported by Suetonius, but because the phrase was already popular at the time the play was written.<ref>It appears, for example, in [[Richard Eedes]]'s Latin play ''Caesar Interfectus'' of 1582 and ''The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke &tc'' of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays. {{cite book |title=The Works of William Shakespeare |last=Dyce |first=Alexander |authorlink= Alexander Dyce|coauthors=(quoting [[Edmond Malone|Malone]]) |year= 1866|publisher=Chapman and Hall |location= London|isbn= |page= 648|url= }}</ref> |
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<!-- Greek and Latin translation by J C Rolfe of [[Harvard University Press]]. Et can also mean too, when it is used as an adverb. see Lewis & Short Latin dictionary--> |
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According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#67 67]</ref> Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!". They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. |
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A wax statue of Caesar was erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd who had amassed there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. In the ensuing chaos [[Mark Antony]], [[Caesar Augustus|Octavian (later Augustus Caesar)]], and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire. |
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===Aftermath of the assassination=== |
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[[File:Virgil Solis - Deification Caesar.jpg|thumb|''[[Apotheosis|Deification]] of Julius Caesar'' as represented in a 16th-century [[engraving]].]] |
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The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Florus/Epitome/2I*.html#XVII 2.7.1]</ref> The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of high-browed aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the [[Optimates]], perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. But, to his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius [[Augustus|Octavian]] his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name as well as making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#83.2 83.2]</ref> The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the [[Liberators' civil war]], fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_suetcaesar.htm |title=Suetonius, Life of Caesar, Chapters LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXV |publisher=Ancienthistory.about.com |date=2009-10-29 |accessdate=2010-04-28}}</ref> However, Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 at the time of Caesar's death, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with [[Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus|Decimus Brutus]] in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. |
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In order to combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the ''lex Titia'' on 27 November 43 BC,<ref>{{cite book | title = Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire | author = Osgood, Josiah | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | page = 60}}</ref> the [[Second Triumvirate]] was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Lepidus]].<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#13.1 13.1]; Florus, ''Epitome'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Florus/Epitome/2I*.html#XVI 2.6]</ref> It formally [[Apotheosis|deified]] Caesar as [[Divus Iulius]] in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became ''Divi filius'' ("Son of a god").<ref>{{cite book | title = Roman Religion | author = Warrior, Valerie M. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | page = 110 | isbn = 0521825113}}</ref> Seeing that Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate brought back the horror of [[proscription]], abandoned since [[Sulla]].<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Florus/Epitome/2I*.html#XVI 2.6.3]</ref> It engaged in the legally sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents in order to secure funding for its forty-five legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius.<ref>{{cite book | title = Ancient Rome: An Introductory History | author = Zoch, Paul A. | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | year = 200 | pages = 217–218| isbn = 0806132876}}</ref> Antony and Octavius defeated them at [[Battle of Philippi|Philippi]].<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Florus/Epitome/2I*.html#XXXIIII 2.7.11–14]; Appian, ''The Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/5*.html 5.3]</ref> |
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Afterward, Mark Antony married Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at [[Battle of Actium|Actium]], resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him to status of a deity.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Florus/Epitome/2I*.html#XXXIIII 2.34.66]</ref> |
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Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade [[Parthia]], the [[Caucasus]] and [[Scythia]], and then swing back onto [[Germania]] through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#58 58.6]</ref> His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results. |
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==Physical appearance== |
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The Roman historian [[Suetonius]] describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes."<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Life of Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#45 45]: ''excelsa statura, colore candido, teretibus membris, ore paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis.''</ref> |
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==Health== |
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Based on remarks by Plutarch,<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 17, 45, 60; see also Suetonius, ''Julius'' 45.</ref> Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from [[epilepsy]]. Modern scholarship is "sharply divided" on the subject, and it is more certain that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s.<ref>Ronald T. Ridley, "The Dictator's Mistake: Caesar's Escape from Sulla," ''Historia'' 49 (2000), pp. 225–226, citing doubters of epilepsy: F. Kanngiesser, "Notes on the Pathology of the Julian Dynasty," ''Glasgow Medical Journal'' 77 (1912) 428–432; T. Cawthorne, "Julius Caesar and the Falling Sickness,” ''Proceedings of Royal Society of Medicine'' 51 (1957) 27–30, who prefers [[Ménière's disease]]; and O. Temkin, ''The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology'' (Baltimore 1971), p 162.</ref> |
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Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had [[absence seizure]]s in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer [[Suetonius]] who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of [[hypoglycemia]], which can cause epileptoid seizures.<ref name="Hughes2004Caesar">{{cite journal|author=Hughes J|title=Dictator Perpetuus: Julius Caesar—did he have seizures? If so, what was the etiology?|journal=Epilepsy Behav|volume=5|issue=5|pages=756–64|year=2004|pmid=5380131 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.05.006}}</ref><ref name="Gomez1995">{{cite journal|author=Gomez J, Kotler J, Long J|title=Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to a brain tumor?|journal=The Journal of the Florida Medical Association|volume=82|issue=3|pages=199–201|year=1995| pmid = 7738524}}</ref><ref name="epilepsiemuseumCaesar">{{cite web|url=http://www.epilepsiemuseum.de/alt/caesaren.html|title=Gaius Julius Caesar|accessdate=28 August 2008|author=H. Schneble|date=1 January 2003|publisher=German Epilepsy Museum}}</ref> |
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==Literary works== |
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Caesar was considered during his lifetime to be one of the best orators and authors of prose in Rome—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.<ref>Cicero, ''Brutus'', 252.</ref> Among his most famous works were his funeral oration for his paternal aunt [[Julia (aunt of Caesar and wife of Marius)|Julia]] and his ''[[Anticato]]'', a document written to blacken [[Cato the Younger|Cato's]] reputation and respond to Cicero's ''Cato'' memorial. [[Poems by Julius Caesar|Poems by Caesar]] are also mentioned in ancient sources.<ref>Edward Courtney, ''The Fragmentary Latin Poets'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 153–155 and 187–188. See also [[Poems by Julius Caesar]].</ref> His works other than his war commentaries and his speeches have been lost. |
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===Memoirs=== |
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[[File:Commentarii de Bello Gallico.jpg|thumb|''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'', an account written by Julius Caesar about his nine years of war in Gaul]] |
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* The ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' (''Commentaries on the [[Gallic Wars|Gallic War]]''), campaigns in Gallia and Britannia during his term as [[promagistrates|proconsul]]; and |
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* The ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili]]'' (''Commentaries on the [[Caesar's civil war|Civil War]]''), events of the Civil War until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt. |
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Other works historically attributed to Caesar, but whose authorship is doubted, are: |
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* ''[[De Bello Alexandrino]]'' (''On the Alexandrine War''), campaign in Alexandria; |
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* ''[[De Bello Africo]]'' (''On the African War''), campaigns in North Africa; and |
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* ''[[De Bello Hispaniensi]]'' (''On the Hispanic War''), campaigns in the Iberian peninsula. |
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These narratives were written and published on a yearly basis during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". Apparently simple and direct in style—to the point that Caesar's ''Commentarii'' are commonly studied by first and second year Latin students—they are in fact highly sophisticated tracts, aimed most particularly at the middle-brow readership of minor aristocrats{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} in Rome, Italy, and the provinces. |
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==Name== |
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{{Main|Etymology of the name of Julius Caesar}} |
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Using the [[Latin alphabet]] as it existed in the day of Caesar (i.e., without lower case letters, "J", or "U"), Caesar's name is properly rendered "GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR". The form "CAIVS" is also attested using the old Roman pronunciation of letter C as G; it is an antique form of the more common "GAIVS". It is often seen abbreviated to "C. IVLIVS CAESAR". (The letterform "Æ" is a [[ligature (typography)|ligature]], which is often encountered in Latin [[inscription]]s where it was used to save space, and is nothing more than the letters "ae".) In Classical Latin, it was {{Pronounced|ˈɡaːius ˈjuːlius ˈkaisar}}.<ref>Note that the first name, like the second, is properly pronounced in three syllables, not two. See [[Latin spelling and pronunciation]].</ref> In the days of the late [[Roman Republic]], many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to [[Athens]] for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]]. In [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], during Caesar's time, his family name was written ''Καίσαρ'', reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German [[Kaiser]]. This German name was phonemically but not phonetically derived from the [[Middle Ages]] [[Ecclesiastical Latin]], in which the familiar part "Caesar" is {{IPA|[ˈtʃeːsar]}}, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived, as well as the title of [[Tsar]]. His name is also remembered in [[Norse mythology]], where he is manifested as the legendary king [[Kjárr]].<ref name="carlaz">{{PDFlink|[http://www.carlaz.com/phd/cea_phd_chap2.pdf Anderson, Carl Edlund. (1999). ''Formation and Resolution of Ideological Contrast in the Early History of Scandinavia''. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse & Celtic (Faculty of English). p. 44.]|308 KB}}</ref> |
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==Family== |
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{{Main|Julio-Claudian family tree}} |
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{{Wide image|Roman families 4 Nov 08.png|1000px|Julio-Claudian family tree}} |
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===Parents=== |
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* Father [[Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder]] |
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* Mother [[Aurelia Cotta|Aurelia]] (related to the [[Aurelia (gens)|Aurelii Cottae]]) |
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===Sisters=== |
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*[[Julia Caesaris (sister of Julius Caesar)|Julia Caesaris "Maior"]] (the elder) |
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*[[Julia Caesaris (sister of Julius Caesar)|Julia Caesaris "Minor"]] (the younger) |
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===Wives=== |
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* First marriage to [[Cornelia Cinna minor|Cornelia Cinnilla]], from 83 BC until her death in childbirth in 69 or 68 BC |
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* Second marriage to [[Pompeia (wife of Julius Caesar)|Pompeia]], from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC |
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* Third marriage to [[Calpurnia Pisonis]], from 59 BC until Caesar's death |
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===Children=== |
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* [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]] with Cornelia Cinnilla, born in 83 or 82 BC |
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* [[Caesarion]], with [[Cleopatra VII]], born 47 BC. He was killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus. |
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* ''adopted'': [[Augustus|Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus]], his great-nephew by blood, who later became Emperor Augustus. |
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* [[Marcus Junius Brutus]]: The historian Plutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth.<ref>Plutarch, ''Brutus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html#5 5]</ref> |
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===Grandchildren=== |
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* Grandson from [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]] and [[Pompey]], dead at several days, unnamed. |
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===Lovers=== |
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* [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra VII]] mother of Caesarion [[Caesarion]] |
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* [[Servilia Caepionis]] mother of Brutus |
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* Eunoë, queen of [[Mauretania]] and wife of [[Bogud]]es |
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===Notable relatives=== |
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* [[Gaius Marius]] (married to his Aunt Julia) |
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* [[Mark Antony]] |
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* [[Lucius Julius Caesar]] |
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* [[Julius Sabinus]], a [[Gaul]] of the [[Lingones]] at the time of the [[Batavian rebellion]] of AD 69, claimed to be the great-grandson of Caesar on the grounds that his great-grandmother had been Caesar's lover during the Gallic war.<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]]'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#55|4.55]]</ref> |
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===Political rivals and rumours of homosexual activity=== |
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Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of sex, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar."<ref name="Suet.1.49">Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#49 49]</ref> According to Cicero, [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus|Bibulus]], [[Gaius Memmius (poet)|Gaius Memmius]], and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with [[Nicomedes IV of Bithynia]] early in his career. The tales were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate and degrade him. It is possible that the rumours were spread only as a form of character assassination. Caesar himself, according to [[Cassius Dio]], denied the accusations under oath.<ref name="Suet.1.2">Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#49 49]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/43*.html#20 43.20]</ref> This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. A favorite tactic used by the opposition was to accuse a popular political rival as living a Hellenistic lifestyle based on Greek and Eastern culture, where homosexuality and a lavish lifestyle were more acceptable than in Roman tradition.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} |
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[[Catullus]] wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer [[Mamurra]] were lovers,<ref>[[Catullus]], ''Carmina'' [http://www.vroma.org/~hwalker/VRomaCatullus/029x.html 29], [http://www.vroma.org/~hwalker/VRomaCatullus/057x.html 57]</ref> but later apologised.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#73 73]</ref> |
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[[Mark Antony]] charged that [[Augustus|Octavian]] had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political [[slander]]. The boy Octavian became the first Roman emperor following Caesar's death.<ref name="Suet.2.68">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#68 68], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#71 71]</ref> |
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==Chronology of his life== |
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{{Timeline Julius Caesar}} |
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==Honours and titles== |
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As a young man he was awarded the Corona Civica ([[Civic Crown|civic crown]]) for valour while fighting in [[Asia Minor]] and went on to receive many honours. These included titles such as [[Pater Patriae]] (Father of the Fatherland), and [[Dictator]]. He was also elected [[Pontifex Maximus]] in 63 BC. The many titles bestowed on him by the Senate are sometimes cited as a cause of his assassination, as it seemed inappropriate to many contemporaries for a man to be awarded so many honours. |
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''Divus Iulius'' or ''Divus Julius'' (the divine Julius or the deified Julius) was the official title that was given to Caesar posthumously by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. [[Mark Antony]] had been appointed as ''[[flamen]]'' (priest) to Caesar shortly before the latter was assassinated.<ref>According to Dio Cassius, 44.6.4.</ref> Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. The cult of Divus Iulius was promoted by both Octavian and Mark Antony. After the death of Antony, [[Octavian]], as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of ''Divi Filius'' (son of a god). |
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Caesar's [[cognomen]] would itself become a title; it was greatly promulgated by the [[Bible]], by the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became the German [[Kaiser]] and Slavic [[Tsar]]/Czar. The last tsar in nominal power was [[Simeon II of Bulgaria]] whose reign ended in 1946; for two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. |
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==Depictions== |
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{{Main|Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar}} |
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''For the marble bust from Arles discovered in 2007–8 alleged to be Caesar's likeness, and the ensuing controversy, see [[Arles portrait bust]].'' |
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<gallery> |
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File:Gaius_Julius_Caesar_(100-44_BC).JPG|Bust in [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]], photograph published in 1902 |
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File:C. Julius-Caesar (British Museum).gif|Bust of Julius Caesar from the [[British Museum]] |
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File:Rimini083.jpg|Modern bronze statue of Julius Caesar, [[Rimini]], Italy |
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</gallery> |
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==See also== |
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*[[Comet Caesar]] |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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===Primary sources=== |
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{{Sisterlinks}} |
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====Own writings==== |
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{{Refbegin}} |
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* [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/caesarx.html Forum Romanum Index to Caesar's works online] in Latin and translation |
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* [http://www.freewebs.com/omniamundamundis/cae.htm omnia munda mundis] Hypertext of Caesar's De Bello Gallico |
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* {{gutenberg author|id=Julius+Caesar | name=Julius Caesar}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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====Ancient historians' writings==== |
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{{Refbegin}} |
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* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/2*.html Appian, Book 13] (English translation) |
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* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html Cassius Dio, Books 37–44] (English translation) |
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* [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/antony.html Plutarch on Antony] (English translation, Dryden edition) |
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* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html Plutarch: The Life of Julius Caesar] (English translation) |
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* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony] (English translation) |
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* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar]. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe) |
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* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-julius.html Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar] (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified) |
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{{Refend}} |
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===Secondary sources=== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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*{{citebook|author=Canfora, Luciano|title=Julius Caesar: The People's Dictator|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|year=2006|isbn=0-748-61936-4}} |
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*{{citebook |title=Julius Caesar |author=Freeman, Philip |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2008|isbn=0-743-28953-6}} |
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*{{citebook|author=[[Adrian Goldsworthy|Goldsworthy, Adrian]]|title=Caesar: Life of a Colossus|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2006|isbn=0-300-12048-6}} |
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*{{citebook|author=[[Tom Holland|Holland, Tom]] |title=Rubicon: The Last Years Of The Roman Republic|publisher=Anchor Books|year=2003|isbn=1-4000-7897-0}} |
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*{{citebook|author=Jiménez, Ramon L.|title=Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War|publisher=Praeger|year=2000|isbn=0-275-96620-8}} |
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*{{citebook|author=Kleiner, Diana E. E.|title=Cleopatra and Rome|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-674-01905-9}} |
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*{{citebook|author=Meier, Christian|title=Caesar: A Biography|publisher=Fontana Press|year=1996|isbn=0-006-86349-3}} |
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*{{citebook|author=Weinstock, Stefan|title=Divus Julius|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1971|isbn=978-0198142874}} |
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</div> |
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==External links== |
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{{Spoken Wikipedia-3|10 January 2007|Jcaesar-pt1.ogg|Jcaesar-pt2.ogg|Jcaesar-pt3.ogg}} |
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*[http://www.livius.org/caa-can/caesar/caesar00.html C. Julius Caesar] Jona Lendering's in‑depth history of Caesar (Livius. Org) |
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*[http://virgil.org/caesar/ Guide to online resources] |
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*{{PND|118518275}} |
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*[http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caesar.html History of Julius Caesar] |
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*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caesar_julius.shtml Julius Caesar] at [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ BBC History] |
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*Grey, D. [http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Assassination+of+Caesar The Assassination of Caesar], Clio History Journal, 2009. |
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{{Clear}} |
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==Succession table== |
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{{Start box}} |
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{{S-off}} |
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{{Succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Lucius Afranius (consul)|Lucius Afranius]] and <br />[[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer]]||after=[[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus]] and [[Aulus Gabinius]]|years=''with [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]]''<br />59 BC |
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}} <!-- End of 8th up/ 1st counting down---> |
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{{Succession box |
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|title=[[Roman dictator|Dictator]] |
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|before=''none''<br /><small>office last held by [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] in 81 BC</small>||after=''none''<br /><small>office next held by himself in 48 BC</small>|years=49 BC<br />(eleven days) |
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}} |
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{{Succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus]] and<br />[[Gaius Claudius Marcellus Maior]]||after=[[Quintus Fufius Calenus]] and<br />[[Publius Vatinius]]|years=''with [[Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 48 BCE)|Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus]]''<br />48 BC |
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}} <!-- End of 7th up/ 2nd down---> |
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{{Succession box |
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|title=[[Roman dictator|Dictator]] |
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|before=''none''<br /><small>office last held by himself in 49 BC</small>||after=''none''<br /><small>office next held by himself in 46 BC</small>|years=48 - 47 BC |
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}} |
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{{Succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Quintus Fufius Calenus]] and<br />[[Publius Vatinius]]||after=Gaius Julius Caesar <br /></b>''alone without colleague<b>''|years=''with [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]''<br />46 BC |
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}} <!-- End of 6th up/ 3rd down---> |
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{{Succession box |
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|title=[[Roman dictator|Dictator for ten years]] |
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|before=''none''<br /><small>office last held by himself in 47 BC</small>||after=''himself''<br /><small>as Dictator in perpetuity|years=46-44 BC |
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}} |
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{{Succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=Gaius Julius Caesar and<br />[[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]||after=Gaius Julius Caesar and<br />[[Mark Antony|Marcus Antonius]]|years=''alone without colleague''<br />45 BC |
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}} <!-- 5th up/ 4th down---> |
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{{Succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=Gaius Julius Caesar <br />'''''alone without colleague''''' ||after= [[Publius Cornelius Dolabella]]<br /> (''with [[Mark Antony|Marcus Antonius]]'')|years=''with [[Mark Antony|Marcus Antonius]]''<br />44 BC |
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}}<!--End of 4th up/ 5th down---> |
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{{Succession box |
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|title=[[Dictator perpetuo|Dictator in perpetuity]] and consul for ten years |
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|before=''himself''<br /><small>as Dictator for ten years</small>||after=none, office abolished|years=44 BC |
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}} |
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{{Succession box|title=[[Pontifex Maximus#Incomplete list of Pontifices Maximi|Pontifex Maximus]] |before=[[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius]]|after=[[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] |years=63-44 BC}} |
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<small>Caesar was acclaimed ''Imperator'' in 60 and 45 BC. In the [[Roman Republic]], this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander ''imperator'', an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] for a [[Roman triumph|triumph]]. After being acclaimed ''imperator'', the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his [[Roman triumph|triumph]], where he would relinquish the title as well as his [[imperium]].</small></div> |
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{{Plutarch}} |
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{{Persondata |
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|NAME=Caesar, Gaius Julius |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Julius Caesar |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Roman dictator |
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|DATE OF BIRTH=12 July 100 BC |
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|PLACE OF BIRTH=Rome, [[Roman Republic]] |
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|DATE OF DEATH=15 March 44 BC |
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|PLACE OF DEATH=Rome, [[Roman Republic]] |
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[[es:Julio César]] |
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[[eo:Julio Cezaro]] |
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[[ext:Júliu Cesa]] |
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[[eu:Julio Zesar]] |
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[[fa:ژولیوس سزار]] |
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[[hif:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[fr:Jules César]] |
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[[fy:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[ga:Iúil Caesar]] |
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[[gl:Xulio César]] |
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[[gan:凱撒大帝]] |
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[[ko:율리우스 카이사르]] |
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[[hy:Հուլիոս Կեսար]] |
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[[hi:जुलियस सीसर]] |
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[[hr:Gaj Julije Cezar]] |
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[[io:Julius Cezaro]] |
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[[id:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[ia:Julio Cesare]] |
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[[is:Júlíus Caesar]] |
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[[it:Gaio Giulio Cesare]] |
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[[he:יוליוס קיסר]] |
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[[jv:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[kn:ಜೂಲಿಯಸ್ ಸೀಜರ್]] |
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[[ka:იულიუს კეისარი]] |
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[[sw:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[ku:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[la:Gaius Iulius Caesar]] |
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[[lv:Jūlijs Cēzars]] |
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[[lb:Gaius Iulius Caesar]] |
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[[lt:Gajus Julijus Cezaris]] |
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[[li:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[jbo:iulius. kaisar]] |
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[[hu:Caius Iulius Caesar]] |
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[[mk:Јулиј Цезар]] |
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[[ml:ജൂലിയസ് സീസർ]] |
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[[arz:يوليوس قيصر]] |
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[[mzn:سزار]] |
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[[ms:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[mn:Юлий Цезарь]] |
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[[nl:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[ja:ガイウス・ユリウス・カエサル]] |
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[[pih:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[no:Julius Cæsar]] |
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[[nn:Julius Cæsar]] |
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[[oc:Juli Cesar]] |
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[[uz:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[nds:Gaius Julius Caesar]] |
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[[pl:Gajusz Juliusz Cezar]] |
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[[pt:Júlio César]] |
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[[ro:Iulius Cezar]] |
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[[qu:Gaius Iulius Caesar]] |
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[[ru:Гай Юлий Цезарь]] |
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[[sa:जुलियस कैसर]] |
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[[stq:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[sq:Gaius Julius Caesar]] |
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[[scn:Caiu Giuliu Cesari]] |
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[[simple:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[sk:Gaius Iulius Caesar]] |
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[[sl:Gaj Julij Cezar]] |
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[[sr:Гај Јулије Цезар]] |
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[[sh:Gaj Julije Cezar]] |
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[[fi:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[sv:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[tl:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[ta:யூலியசு சீசர்]] |
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[[tt:Гай Юлий Цезарь]] |
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[[te:జూలియస్ సీజర్]] |
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[[th:จูเลียส ซีซาร์]] |
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[[tr:Jül Sezar]] |
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[[uk:Гай Юлій Цезар]] |
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[[ur:جولیس سیزر]] |
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[[za:Gaejsa]] |
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[[vec:Gaio Giulio Cesare]] |
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[[vi:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[fiu-vro:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[wa:Djule Cezår]] |
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[[zh-classical:凱撒]] |
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[[war:Julius Caesar]] |
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[[yi:יוליוס קייסער]] |
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[[yo:Juliu Késárì]] |
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[[zh-yue:凱撒]] |
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[[bat-smg:Gajos Jolėjos Cezaris]] |
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[[zh:恺撒]] |
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Revision as of 12:32, 2 June 2010
Julius Caesar was an old man who died. He is worshipped throughout um...nowhere, and is basically worthless to worship. He spent 10 years of his life in Gaul, wasting his time. He was famous for...um....marrying three times. This is bad, people. Please do not copy. Jonathan Wong thanks you.