Jump to content

Solar flare

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Flare (solar physics))
Image artifacts (diffraction spikes and vertical streaks) appearing in a CCD image of a major solar flare due to the excess incident radiation

A solar flare is a relatively intense, localized emission of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. Flares occur in active regions and are often, but not always, accompanied by coronal mass ejections, solar particle events, and other eruptive solar phenomena. The occurrence of solar flares varies with the 11-year solar cycle.

Solar flares are thought to occur when stored magnetic energy in the Sun's atmosphere accelerates charged particles in the surrounding plasma. This results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum.

The extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from solar flares is absorbed by the daylight side of Earth's upper atmosphere, in particular the ionosphere, and does not reach the surface. This absorption can temporarily increase the ionization of the ionosphere which may interfere with short-wave radio communication. The prediction of solar flares is an active area of research.

Flares also occur on other stars, where the term stellar flare applies.

Physical description

[edit]
An X3.2-class solar flare observed in different wavelengths. Clockwise from top left: 304, 335, 131, and 193 Å

Solar flares are eruptions of electromagnetic radiation originating in the Sun's atmosphere.[1] They affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (photosphere, chromosphere, and corona).[2] The plasma medium is heated to >107 kelvin, while electrons, protons, and heavier ions are accelerated to near the speed of light.[3][4] Flares emit electromagnetic radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays.[2]

Flares occur in active regions, often around sunspots, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere to link the corona to the solar interior. Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may also produce coronal mass ejections (CMEs), although the relationship between CMEs and flares is not well understood.[5]

Associated with solar flares are flare sprays.[6] They involve faster ejections of material than eruptive prominences,[7] and reach velocities of 20 to 2000 kilometers per second.[8]

Cause

[edit]

Flares occur when accelerated charged particles, mainly electrons, interact with the plasma medium. Evidence suggests that the phenomenon of magnetic reconnection leads to this extreme acceleration of charged particles.[9] On the Sun, magnetic reconnection may happen on solar arcades – a type of prominence consisting of a series of closely occurring loops following magnetic lines of force.[10] These lines of force quickly reconnect into a lower arcade of loops leaving a helix of magnetic field unconnected to the rest of the arcade. The sudden release of energy in this reconnection is the origin of the particle acceleration. The unconnected magnetic helical field and the material that it contains may violently expand outwards forming a coronal mass ejection.[11] This also explains why solar flares typically erupt from active regions on the Sun where magnetic fields are much stronger.

Although there is a general agreement on the source of a flare's energy, the mechanisms involved are not well understood. It is not clear how the magnetic energy is transformed into the kinetic energy of the particles, nor is it known how some particles can be accelerated to the GeV range (109 electron volt) and beyond. There are also some inconsistencies regarding the total number of accelerated particles, which sometimes seems to be greater than the total number in the coronal loop.[12]

Post-eruption loops and arcades

[edit]
A post-eruption arcade present after an X5.7-class solar flare during the Bastille Day solar storm[13]

After the eruption of a solar flare, post-eruption loops made of hot plasma begin to form across the neutral line separating regions of opposite magnetic polarity near the flare's source. These loops extend from the photosphere up into the corona and form along the neutral line at increasingly greater distances from the source as time progresses.[14] The existence of these hot loops is thought to be continued by prolonged heating present after the eruption and during the flare's decay stage.[15]

In sufficiently powerful flares, typically of C-class or higher, the loops may combine to form an elongated arch-like structure known as a post-eruption arcade. These structures may last anywhere from multiple hours to multiple days after the initial flare.[14] In some cases, dark sunward-traveling plasma voids known as supra-arcade downflows may form above these arcades.[16]

Frequency

[edit]

The frequency of occurrence of solar flares varies with the 11-year solar cycle. It can typically range from several per day during solar maxima to less than one every week during solar minima. Additionally, more powerful flares are less frequent than weaker ones. For example, X10-class (severe) flares occur on average about eight times per cycle, whereas M1-class (minor) flares occur on average about 2000 times per cycle.[17]

Erich Rieger discovered with coworkers in 1984, an approximately 154 day period in the occurrence of gamma-ray emitting solar flares at least since the solar cycle 19.[18] The period has since been confirmed in most heliophysics data and the interplanetary magnetic field and is commonly known as the Rieger period. The period's resonance harmonics also have been reported from most data types in the heliosphere.

The frequency distributions of various flare phenomena can be characterized by power-law distributions. For example, the peak fluxes of radio, extreme ultraviolet, and hard and soft X-ray emissions; total energies; and flare durations (see § Duration) have been found to follow power-law distributions.[19][20][21][22]: 23–28 

Classification

[edit]

Soft X-ray

[edit]
An M5.8, M2.3, and X2.8 flare were recorded by GOES-16 on 14 December 2023. Their corresponding peak fluxes in the 0.1 to 0.8 nm channel were 5.8×10−5, 2.3×10−5, and 2.8×10−4 W/m2, respectively.

The modern classification system for solar flares uses the letters A, B, C, M, or X, according to the peak flux in watts per square metre (W/m2) of soft X-rays with wavelengths 0.1 to 0.8 nanometres (1 to 8 ångströms), as measured by GOES satellites in geosynchronous orbit.

Classification Peak flux range (W/m2)
A < 10−7
B 10−7 – 10−6
C 10−6 – 10−5
M 10−5 – 10−4
X > 10−4

The strength of an event within a class is noted by a numerical suffix ranging from 1 up to, but excluding, 10, which is also the factor for that event within the class. Hence, an X2 flare is twice the strength of an X1 flare, an X3 flare is three times as powerful as an X1. M-class flares are a tenth the size of X-class flares with the same numeric suffix.[23] An X2 is four times more powerful than an M5 flare.[24] X-class flares with a peak flux that exceeds 10−3 W/m2 may be noted with a numerical suffix equal to or greater than 10.

This system was originally devised in 1970 and included only the letters C, M, and X. These letters were chosen to avoid confusion with other optical classification systems. The A and B classes were added in the 1990s as instruments became more sensitive to weaker flares. Around the same time, the backronym moderate for M-class flares and extreme for X-class flares began to be used.[25]

Importance

[edit]

An earlier classification system, sometimes referred to as the flare importance, was based on H-alpha spectral observations. The scheme uses both the intensity and emitting surface. The classification in intensity is qualitative, referring to the flares as: faint (f), normal (n), or brilliant (b). The emitting surface is measured in terms of millionths of the hemisphere and is described below. (The total hemisphere area AH = 15.5 × 1012 km2.)

Classification Corrected area
(millionths of hemisphere)
S < 100
1 100–250
2 250–600
3 600–1200
4 > 1200

A flare is then classified taking S or a number that represents its size and a letter that represents its peak intensity, v.g.: Sn is a normal sunflare.[26]

Duration

[edit]

A common measure of flare duration is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) time of flux in the soft X-ray bands 0.05 to 0.4 and 0.1 to 0.8 nm measured by GOES. The FWHM time spans from when a flare's flux first reaches halfway between its maximum flux and the background flux and when it again reaches this value as the flare decays. Using this measure, the duration of a flare ranges from approximately tens of seconds to several hours with a median duration of approximately 6 and 11 minutes in the 0.05 to 0.4 and 0.1 to 0.8 nm bands, respectively.[27][28]

Flares can also be classified based on their duration as either impulsive or long duration events (LDE). The time threshold separating the two is not well defined. The SWPC regards events requiring 30 minutes or more to decay to half maximum as LDEs, whereas Belgium's Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence regards events with duration greater than 60 minutes as LDEs.[29][30]

Effects

[edit]

The electromagnetic radiation emitted during a solar flare propagates away from the Sun at the speed of light with intensity inversely proportional to the square of the distance from its source region. The excess ionizing radiation, namely X-ray and extreme ultraviolet (XUV) radiation, is known to affect planetary atmospheres and is of relevance to human space exploration and the search for extraterrestrial life.

Solar flares also affect other objects in the Solar System. Research into these effects has primarily focused on the atmosphere of Mars and, to a lesser extent, that of Venus.[31] The impacts on other planets in the Solar System are little studied in comparison. As of 2024, research on their effects on Mercury have been limited to modeling of the response of ions in the planet's magnetosphere,[32] and their impact on Jupiter and Saturn have only been studied in the context of X-ray radiation back scattering off of the planets' upper atmospheres.[33][34]

Ionosphere

[edit]
Structure of Earth's nightside (left) and dayside (right) ionospheric sub-layers under normal conditions

Enhanced XUV irradiance during solar flares can result in increased ionization, dissociation, and heating in the ionospheres of Earth and Earth-like planets. On Earth, these changes to the upper atmosphere, collectively referred to as sudden ionospheric disturbances, can interfere with short-wave radio communication and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) such as GPS,[35] and subsequent expansion of the upper atmosphere can increase drag on satellites in low Earth orbit leading to orbital decay over time.[36][37][additional citation(s) needed]

Flare-associated XUV photons interact with and ionize neutral constituents of planetary atmospheres via the process of photoionization. The electrons that are freed in this process, referred to as photoelectrons to distinguish them from the ambient ionospheric electrons, are left with kinetic energies equal to the photon energy in excess of the ionization threshold. In the lower ionosphere where flare impacts are greatest and transport phenomena are less important, the newly liberated photoelectrons lose energy primarily via thermalization with the ambient electrons and neutral species and via secondary ionization due to collisions with the latter, or so-called photoelectron impact ionization. In the process of thermalization, photoelectrons transfer energy to neutral species, resulting in heating and expansion of the neutral atmosphere.[38] The greatest increases in ionization occur in the lower ionosphere where wavelengths with the greatest relative increase in irradiance—the highly penetrative X-ray wavelengths—are absorbed, corresponding to Earth's E and D layers and Mars's M1 layer.[31][35][39][40][41]

Radio blackouts

[edit]

The temporary increase in ionization of the daylight side of Earth's atmosphere, in particular the D layer of the ionosphere, can interfere with short-wave radio communications that rely on its level of ionization for skywave propagation. Skywave, or skip, refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted off of the ionized ionosphere. When ionization is higher than normal, radio waves get degraded or completely absorbed by losing energy from the more frequent collisions with free electrons.[1][35]

The level of ionization of the atmosphere correlates with the strength of the associated solar flare in soft X-ray radiation. The Space Weather Prediction Center, a part of the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, classifies radio blackouts by the peak soft X-ray intensity of the associated flare.

Classification Associated
SXR class
Description[17]
R1 M1 Minor radio blackout
R2 M5 Moderate radio blackout
R3 X1 Strong radio blackout
R4 X10 Severe radio blackout
R5 X20 Extreme radio blackout

Solar flare effect

[edit]
Electric currents in Earth's dayside ionosphere can be strengthened during a large solar flare

During non-flaring or solar quiet conditions, electric currents flow through the ionosphere's dayside E layer inducing small-amplitude diurnal variations in the geomagnetic field. These ionospheric currents can be strengthened during large solar flares due to increases in electrical conductivity associated with enhanced ionization of the E and D layers. The subsequent increase in the induced geomagnetic field variation is referred to as a solar flare effect (sfe) or historically as a magnetic crochet. The latter term derives from the french word crochet meaning hook reflecting the hook-like disturbances in magnetic field strength observed by ground-based magnetometers. These disturbances are on the order of a few nanoteslas and last for a few minutes, which is relatively minor compared to those induced during geomagnetic storms.[42][43]

Health

[edit]

Low Earth orbit

[edit]

For astronauts in low Earth orbit, an expected radiation dose from the electromagnetic radiation emitted during a solar flare is about 0.05 gray, which is not immediately lethal on its own. Of much more concern for astronauts is the particle radiation associated with solar particle events.[44][better source needed]

Mars

[edit]

The impacts of solar flare radiation on Mars are relevant to exploration and the search for life on the planet. Models of its atmosphere indicate that the most energetic solar flares previously recorded may have provided acute doses of radiation that would have been almost harmful or lethal to mammals and other higher organisms on Mars's surface. Furthermore, flares energetic enough to provide lethal doses, while not yet observed on the Sun, are thought to occur and have been observed on other Sun-like stars.[45][46][47]

Observational history

[edit]

Flares produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, although with different intensity. They are not very intense in visible light, but they can be very bright at particular spectral lines. They normally produce bremsstrahlung in X-rays and synchrotron radiation in radio.[48]

Optical observations

[edit]
Richard Carrington's sketch of the first recorded solar flare (A and B mark the initial bright points which moved over the course of five minutes to C and D before disappearing.)[49]

Solar flares were first observed by Richard Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently on 1 September 1859 by projecting the image of the solar disk produced by an optical telescope through a broad-band filter.[50][51] It was an extraordinarily intense white light flare, a flare emitting a high amount of light in the visual spectrum.[50]

Since flares produce copious amounts of radiation at H-alpha,[52] adding a narrow (≈1 Å) passband filter centered at this wavelength to the optical telescope allows the observation of not very bright flares with small telescopes. For years Hα was the main, if not the only, source of information about solar flares. Other passband filters are also used.[citation needed]

Radio observations

[edit]

During World War II, on February 25 and 26, 1942, British radar operators observed radiation that Stanley Hey interpreted as solar emission. Their discovery did not go public until the end of the conflict. The same year, Southworth also observed the Sun in radio, but as with Hey, his observations were only known after 1945. In 1943, Grote Reber was the first to report radioastronomical observations of the Sun at 160 MHz. The fast development of radioastronomy revealed new peculiarities of the solar activity like storms and bursts related to the flares. Today, ground-based radiotelescopes observe the Sun from c. 15 MHz up to 400 GHz.

Space telescopes

[edit]
Observations of a solar flare by different instruments aboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory

Because the Earth's atmosphere absorbs much of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun with wavelengths shorter than 300 nm, space-based telescopes allowed for the observation of solar flares in previously unobserved high-energy spectral lines. Since the 1970s, the GOES series of satellites have been continuously observing the Sun in soft X-rays, and their observations have become the standard measure of flares, diminishing the importance of the H-alpha classification. Additionally, space-based telescopes allow for the observation of extremely long wavelengths—as long as a few kilometres—which cannot propagate through the ionosphere.

Examples of large solar flares

[edit]
Space weather conditions, including the soft-X-ray flux (top row), during the 2003 Halloween solar storms[53]

The most powerful flare ever observed is thought to be the flare associated with the 1859 Carrington Event.[54] While no soft X-ray measurements were made at the time, the magnetic crochet associated with the flare was recorded by ground-based magnetometers allowing the flare's strength to be estimated after the event. Using these magnetometer readings, its soft X-ray class has been estimated to be greater than X10[55] and around X45 (±5).[56][57]

In modern times, the largest solar flare measured with instruments occurred on 4 November 2003. This event saturated the GOES detectors, and because of this, its classification is only approximate. Initially, extrapolating the GOES curve, it was estimated to be X28.[58] Later analysis of the ionospheric effects suggested increasing this estimate to X45.[59][60] This event produced the first clear evidence of a new spectral component above 100 GHz.[61]

Prediction

[edit]

Current methods of flare prediction are problematic, and there is no certain indication that an active region on the Sun will produce a flare. However, many properties of active regions and their sunspots correlate with flaring. For example, magnetically complex regions (based on line-of-sight magnetic field) referred to as delta spots frequently produce the largest flares. A simple scheme of sunspot classification based on the McIntosh system for sunspot groups, or related to a region's fractal complexity[62] is commonly used as a starting point for flare prediction.[63] Predictions are usually stated in terms of probabilities for occurrence of flares above M- or X-class within 24 or 48 hours. The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) issues forecasts of this kind.[64] MAG4 was developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville with support from the Space Radiation Analysis Group at Johnson Space Flight Center (NASA/SRAG) for forecasting M- and X-class flares, CMEs, fast CME, and solar energetic particle events.[65] A physics-based method that can predict imminent large solar flares was proposed by Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research (ISEE), Nagoya University.[66]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Solar Flares (Radio Blackouts)". NOAA/NWS Space Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b Woods, Thomas N.; Kopp, Greg; Chamberlin, Phillip C. (2006). "Contributions of the solar ultraviolet irradiance to the total solar irradiance during large flares". Journal of Geophysical Research. 111 (A10). Bibcode:2005AGUFMSA33A..07W. doi:10.1029/2005JA011507.
  3. ^ Ishikawa, Shin-nosuke; Glesener, Lindsay; Krucker, Säm; Christe, Steven; Buitrago-Casas, Juan Camilo; Narukage, Noriyuki; Vievering, Juliana (2017). "Detection of nanoflare-heated plasma in the solar corona by the FOXSI-2 sounding rocket". Nature Astronomy. 1 (11): 771–774. Bibcode:2017NatAs...1..771I. doi:10.1038/s41550-017-0269-z. ISSN 2397-3366.
  4. ^ Sigalotti, Leonardo Di G.; Cruz, Fidel (2023). "Unveiling the mystery of solar-coronal heating". Physics Today. 76 (4): 34–40. Bibcode:2023PhT....76d..34S. doi:10.1063/pt.3.5217. Retrieved 2024-05-17.
  5. ^ Fletcher, L.; Dennis, B. R.; Hudson, H. S.; Krucker, S.; Phillips, K.; Veronig, A.; Battaglia, M.; Bone, L.; Caspi, A.; Chen, Q.; Gallagher, P.; Grigis, P. T.; Ji, H.; Liu, W.; Milligan, R. O.; Temmer, M. (September 2011). "An Observational Overview of Solar Flares" (PDF). Space Science Reviews. 159 (1–4): 19–106. arXiv:1109.5932. Bibcode:2011SSRv..159...19F. doi:10.1007/s11214-010-9701-8. S2CID 21203102.
  6. ^ Morimoto, Tarou; Kurokawa, Hiroki (31 May 2002). Effects of Magnetic and Gravity forces on the Acceleration of Solar Filaments and Coronal Mass Ejections (PDF). 地球惑星科学関連学会2002年合同大会. Tokyo. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2009.
  7. ^ Tandberg-Hanssen, E.; Martin, Sara F.; Hansen, Richard T. (March 1980). "Dynamics of flare sprays". Solar Physics. 65 (2): 357–368. Bibcode:1980SoPh...65..357T. doi:10.1007/BF00152799. ISSN 0038-0938. S2CID 122385884.
  8. ^ "Biggest Solar Flare on Record". Visible Earth. NASA. 15 May 2001.
  9. ^ Zhu, Chunming; Liu, Rui; Alexander, David; McAteer, R. T. James (19 April 2016). "Observation of the Evolution of a Current Sheet in a Solar Flare". The Astrophysical Journal. 821 (2): L29. arXiv:1603.07062. Bibcode:2016ApJ...821L..29Z. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/821/2/L29.
  10. ^ Priest, E. R.; Forbes, T. G. (2002). "The magnetic nature of solar flares". The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review. 10 (4): 314–317. Bibcode:2002A&ARv..10..313P. doi:10.1007/s001590100013.
  11. ^ Holman, Gordon D. (1 April 2006). "The Mysterious Origins of Solar Flares". Scientific American. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  12. ^ Ryan, James M.; Lee, Martin A. (1991-02-01). "On the Transport and Acceleration of Solar Flare Particles in a Coronal Loop". The Astrophysical Journal. 368: 316. Bibcode:1991ApJ...368..316R. doi:10.1086/169695. ISSN 0004-637X.
  13. ^ Brian, Handy; Hudson, Hugh (14 July 2000). "Super Regions". Montana State University Solar Physics Group. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
  14. ^ a b Livshits, M. A.; Urnov, A. M.; Goryaev, F. F.; Kashapova, L. K.; Grigor’eva, I. Yu.; Kal’tman, T. I. (October 2011). "Physics of post-eruptive solar arcades: Interpretation of RATAN-600 and STEREO spacecraft observations". Astronomy Reports. 55 (10): 918–927. Bibcode:2011ARep...55..918L. doi:10.1134/S1063772911100064. S2CID 121487634. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
  15. ^ Grechnev, V. V.; Kuzin, S. V.; Urnov, A. M.; Zhitnik, I. A.; Uralov, A. M.; Bogachev, S. A.; Livshits, M. A.; Bugaenko, O. I.; Zandanov, V. G.; Ignat’ev, A. P.; Krutov, V. V.; Oparin, S. N.; Pertsov, A. A.; Slemzin, V. A.; Chertok, I. M.; Stepanov, A. I. (July 2006). "Long-lived hot coronal structures observed with CORONAS-F/SPIRIT in the Mg XII line". Solar System Research. 40 (4): 286–293. Bibcode:2006SoSyR..40..286G. doi:10.1134/S0038094606040046. S2CID 121291767. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
  16. ^ Savage, Sabrina L.; McKenzie, David E. (1 May 2011). "Quantitative Examination of a Large Sample of Supra-Arcade Downflows in Eruptive Solar Flares". The Astrophysical Journal. 730 (2): 98. arXiv:1101.1540. Bibcode:2011ApJ...730...98S. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/730/2/98. S2CID 119273860.
  17. ^ a b "NOAA Space Weather Scales". NOAA/NWS Space Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  18. ^ Rieger, E.; Share, G. H.; Forrest, D. J.; Kanbach, G.; Reppin, C.; Chupp, E. L. (1984). "A 154-day periodicity in the occurrence of hard solar flares?". Nature. 312 (5995): 623–625. Bibcode:1984Natur.312..623R. doi:10.1038/312623a0. S2CID 4348672.
  19. ^ Kurochka, L. N. (April 1987). "Energy distribution of 15,000 solar flares". Astronomicheskii Zhurnal. 64: 443. Bibcode:1987AZh....64..443K.
  20. ^ Crosby, Norma B.; Aschwanden, Markus J.; Dennis, Brian R. (February 1993). "Frequency distributions and correlations of solar X-ray flare parameters". Solar Physics. 143 (2): 275–299. Bibcode:1993SoPh..143..275C. doi:10.1007/BF00646488.
  21. ^ Li, Y. P.; Gan, W. Q.; Feng, L. (March 2012). "Statistical analyses on thermal aspects of solar flares". The Astrophysical Journal. 747 (2): 133. Bibcode:2012ApJ...747..133L. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/747/2/133.
  22. ^ Aschwanden, Markus J. (2011). Self-Organized Criticality in Astrophysics: The Statistics of Nonlinear Processes in the Universe. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-15001-2. ISBN 978-3-642-15001-2.
  23. ^ Garner, Rob (6 September 2017). "Sun Erupts With Significant Flare". NASA. Retrieved 2 June 2019.
  24. ^ Schrijver, Carolus J.; Siscoe, George L., eds. (2010), Heliophysics: Space Storms and Radiation: Causes and Effects, Cambridge University Press, p. 375, ISBN 978-1107049048.
  25. ^ Pietrow, A. G. M. (2022). Physical properties of chromospheric features: Plage, peacock jets, and calibrating it all (PhD). Stockholm, Sweden: Stockholm University. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.36047.76968.
  26. ^ Tandberg-Hanssen, Einar; Emslie, A. Gordon (1988). The Physics of Solar Flares. Cambridge University Press.
  27. ^ Reep, Jeffrey W.; Knizhnik, Kalman J. (3 April 2019). "What Determines the X-Ray Intensity and Duration of a Solar Flare?". The Astrophysical Journal. 874 (2): 157. arXiv:1903.10564. Bibcode:2019ApJ...874..157R. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab0ae7. S2CID 85517195.
  28. ^ Reep, Jeffrey W.; Barnes, Will T. (October 2021). "Forecasting the Remaining Duration of an Ongoing Solar Flare". Space Weather. 19 (10). arXiv:2103.03957. Bibcode:2021SpWea..1902754R. doi:10.1029/2021SW002754. S2CID 237709521.
  29. ^ "Space Weather Glossary". NOAA/NWS Space Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  30. ^ "The duration of solar flares". Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
  31. ^ a b Yan, Maodong; Dang, Tong; Cao, Yu-Tian; Cui, Jun; Zhang, Binzheng; Liu, Zerui; Lei, Jiuhou (1 November 2022). "A Comparative Study of Ionospheric Response to Solar Flares at Earth, Venus, and Mars". The Astrophysical Journal. 939 (1): 23. Bibcode:2022ApJ...939...23Y. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac92ff.
  32. ^ Werner, A. L. E.; Leblanc, F.; Chaufray, J. Y.; Modolo, R.; Aizawa, S.; Hadid, L. Z.; Baskevitch, C. (16 February 2022). "Modeling the Impact of a Strong X-Class Solar Flare on the Planetary Ion Composition in Mercury's Magnetosphere". Geophysical Research Letters. 49 (3). Bibcode:2022GeoRL..4996614W. doi:10.1029/2021GL096614.
  33. ^ Bhardwaj, Anil; Branduardi-Raymont, G.; Elsner, R. F.; Gladstone, G. R.; Ramsay, G.; Rodriguez, P.; Soria, R.; Waite, J. H.; Cravens, T. E. (February 2005). "Solar control on Jupiter's equatorial X-ray emissions: 26–29 November 2003 XMM-Newton observation". Geophysical Research Letters. 32 (3). arXiv:astro-ph/0504670. Bibcode:2005GeoRL..32.3S08B. doi:10.1029/2004GL021497.
  34. ^ Bhardwaj, Anil; Elsner, Ronald F.; Waite, Jr., J. Hunter; Gladstone, G. Randall; Cravens, Thomas E.; Ford, Peter G. (10 May 2005). "Chandra Observation of an X-Ray Flare at Saturn: Evidence of Direct Solar Control on Saturn's Disk X-Ray Emissions". The Astrophysical Journal. 624 (2): L121–L124. arXiv:astro-ph/0504110. Bibcode:2005ApJ...624L.121B. doi:10.1086/430521.
  35. ^ a b c Mitra, A. P. (1974). Ionospheric Effects of Solar Flares. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 46. Dordrecht: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-2231-6. ISBN 978-94-010-2233-0.
  36. ^ "The Impact of Flares". RHESSI Web Site. NASA. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
  37. ^ Hayes, Laura A.; O’Hara, Oscar S. D.; Murray, Sophie A.; Gallagher, Peter T. (November 2021). "Solar Flare Effects on the Earth's Lower Ionosphere". Solar Physics. 296 (11): 157. arXiv:2109.06558. Bibcode:2021SoPh..296..157H. doi:10.1007/s11207-021-01898-y.
  38. ^ Smithtro, C. G.; Solomon, S. C. (August 2008). "An improved parameterization of thermal electron heating by photoelectrons, with application to an X17 flare". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 113 (A8). Bibcode:2008JGRA..113.8307S. doi:10.1029/2008JA013077.
  39. ^ Fallows, K.; Withers, P.; Gonzalez, G. (November 2015). "Response of the Mars ionosphere to solar flares: Analysis of MGS radio occultation data". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 120 (11): 9805–9825. Bibcode:2015JGRA..120.9805F. doi:10.1002/2015JA021108.
  40. ^ Thiemann, E. M. B.; Andersson, L.; Lillis, R.; Withers, P.; Xu, S.; Elrod, M.; Jain, S.; Pilinski, M. D.; Pawlowski, D.; Chamberlin, P. C.; Eparvier, F. G.; Benna, M.; Fowler, C.; Curry, S.; Peterson, W. K.; Deighan, J. (28 August 2018). "The Mars Topside Ionosphere Response to the X8.2 Solar Flare of 10 September 2017". Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (16): 8005–8013. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.8005T. doi:10.1029/2018GL077730.
  41. ^ Lollo, Anthony; Withers, Paul; Fallows, Kathryn; Girazian, Zachary; Matta, Majd; Chamberlin, P. C. (May 2012). "Numerical simulations of the ionosphere of Mars during a solar flare". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. 117 (A5). Bibcode:2012JGRA..117.5314L. doi:10.1029/2011JA017399.
  42. ^ Thompson, Richard. "A Solar Flare Effect". Australian Bureau of Meteorology Space Weather Forecasting Centre. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
  43. ^ Curto, Juan José (2020). "Geomagnetic solar flare effects: a review". Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate. 10: 27. Bibcode:2020JSWSC..10...27C. doi:10.1051/swsc/2020027. S2CID 226442270.
  44. ^ Whittaker, Ian. "The invisible space killers – The dangers of space radiation from both inside and outside the solar system". Physiology News Magazine. doi:10.36866/pn.117.36. S2CID 214067105. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  45. ^ Smith, David S.; Scalo, John (March 2007). "Solar X-ray flare hazards on the surface of Mars". Planetary and Space Science. 55 (4): 517–527. arXiv:astro-ph/0610091. Bibcode:2007P&SS...55..517S. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2006.10.001.
  46. ^ Jain, Rajmal; Awasthi, Arun K.; Tripathi, Sharad C.; Bhatt, Nipa J.; Khan, Parvaiz A. (August 2012). "Influence of solar flare X-rays on the habitability on the Mars". Icarus. 220 (2): 889–895. Bibcode:2012Icar..220..889J. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2012.06.011.
  47. ^ Thirupathaiah, P.; Shah, Siddhi Y.; Haider, S.A. (September 2019). "Characteristics of solar X-ray flares and their effects on the ionosphere and human exploration to Mars: MGS radio science observations". Icarus. 330: 60–74. Bibcode:2018cosp...42E1350H. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2019.04.015.
  48. ^ Winckler, J. R. (1964-01-01). "Energetic X-Ray Bursts From Solar Flares". NASA Special Publication. 50: 117. Bibcode:1964NASSP..50..117W.
  49. ^ Carrington, R. C. (November 1859). "Description of a Singular Appearance seen in the Sun on September 1, 1859". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 20: 13–15. Bibcode:1859MNRAS..20...13C. doi:10.1093/mnras/20.1.13.
  50. ^ a b Carrington, Richard C. (November 1859). "Description of a singular appearance seen in the Sun on September 1, 1859". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 20 (1): 13–15. Bibcode:1859MNRAS..20...13C. doi:10.1093/mnras/20.1.13.
  51. ^ Hodgson, Richard (November 1859). "On a curious Appearance seen in the Sun". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 20 (1): 15–16. doi:10.1093/mnras/20.1.15a.
  52. ^ Druett, Malcolm; Scullion, Eamon; Zharkova, Valentina; Matthews, Sarah; Zharkov, Sergei; Rouppe Van der Voort, Luc (2017-06-27). "Beam electrons as a source of Hα flare ribbons". Nature Communications. 8 (1): 15905. Bibcode:2017NatCo...815905D. doi:10.1038/ncomms15905. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 5490266. PMID 28653670.
  53. ^ "Extreme Space Weather Events". National Geophysical Data Center. Archived from the original on May 22, 2012. Retrieved May 21, 2012.
  54. ^ Bell, Trudy E.; Phillips, Tony (6 May 2008). "A Super Solar Flare". Science News. NASA Science. Archived from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
  55. ^ Cliver, E. W.; Svalgaard, L. (October 2004). "The 1859 Solar–Terrestrial Disturbance And the Current Limits of Extreme Space Weather Activity". Solar Physics. 224 (1–2): 407–422. Bibcode:2004SoPh..224..407C. doi:10.1007/s11207-005-4980-z. S2CID 120093108.
  56. ^ Woods, Tom. "Solar Flares" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 October 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
  57. ^ Cliver, Edward W.; Dietrich, William F. (4 April 2013). "The 1859 space weather event revisited: limits of extreme activity" (PDF). J. Space Weather Space Clim. 3: A31. Bibcode:2013JSWSC...3A..31C. doi:10.1051/swsc/2013053. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
  58. ^ "X-Whatever Flare! (X 28)". SOHO Hotshots. ESA/NASA. 4 November 2003. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
  59. ^ "Biggest ever solar flare was even bigger than thought | SpaceRef – Your Space Reference". SpaceRef. 2004-03-15. Archived from the original on 2012-09-10. Retrieved May 21, 2012.
  60. ^ Curto, Juan José; Castell, Josep; Moral, Ferran Del (2016). "Sfe: waiting for the big one". Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate. 6: A23. Bibcode:2016JSWSC...6A..23C. doi:10.1051/swsc/2016018. ISSN 2115-7251.
  61. ^ Kaufmann, Pierre; Raulin, Jean-Pierre; de Castro, C. G. Gimnez; Levato, Hugo; Gary, Dale E.; Costa, Joaquim E. R.; Marun, Adolfo; Pereyra, Pablo; Silva, Adriana V. R.; Correia, Emilia (10 March 2004). "A New Solar Burst Spectral Component Emitting Only in the Terahertz Range". The Astrophysical Journal. 603 (2): L121–L124. Bibcode:2004ApJ...603L.121K. doi:10.1086/383186. S2CID 54878789.
  62. ^ McAteer, James (2005). "Statistics of Active Region Complexy". The Astrophysical Journal. 631 (2): 638. Bibcode:2005ApJ...631..628M. doi:10.1086/432412.
  63. ^ Wheatland, M. S. (2008). "A Bayesian approach to solar flare prediction". The Astrophysical Journal. 609 (2): 1134–1139. arXiv:astro-ph/0403613. Bibcode:2004ApJ...609.1134W. doi:10.1086/421261. S2CID 10273389.
  64. ^ "Forecasts". NOAA/NWS Space Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
  65. ^ Falconer, David; Barghouty, Abdulnasser F.; Khazanov, Igor; Moore, Ron (April 2011). "A tool for empirical forecasting of major flares, coronal mass ejections, and solar particle events from a proxy of active-region free magnetic energy". Space Weather. 9 (4). Bibcode:2011SpWea...9.4003F. doi:10.1029/2009SW000537. hdl:2060/20100032971.
  66. ^ Kusano, Kanya; Iju, Tomoya; Bamba, Yumi; Inoue, Satoshi (July 31, 2020). "A physics-based method that can predict imminent large solar flares". Science. 369 (6503): 587–591. Bibcode:2020Sci...369..587K. doi:10.1126/science.aaz2511. PMID 32732427.
[edit]