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| ⚫ | In '''Japan''', '''education''' is compulsory at the elementary and lower secondary levels in Japan after 1850 as part of its engagement with the West. Meiji period leaders decided the nation-state had the primary role in mobilizing individuals - and children - in service of the state. The Western-style school was introduced as the agent to reach that goal. By the 1890s, schools were generating new sensibilities regarding childhood.<ref>Brian Platt, "Japanese Childhood, Modern Childhood: The Nation-State, the School, and 19th-Century Globalization," '' Journal of Social History,'' Summer 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 4, pp 965-985</ref> After 1890 Japan had numerous reformers, child experts, magazine editors, and well-educated mothers who bought into the new sensibility. They taught the upper middle class a model of childhood that included children having their own space where they read children's books, played with educational toys and, especially, devoted enormous time to school homework. These ideas rapidly disseminated through all social classes <ref>Kathleen S. Uno, ''Passages to Modernity: Motherhood, Childhood, and Social Reform in Early Twentieth Century Japan'' (1999)</ref><ref>Mark Jones, ''Children as Treasures: Childhood and the Middle Class in Early Twentieth Century Japan'' (2010)</ref> |
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In '''Japan''', '''education''' is compulsory at the elementary and lower secondary levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fpcj.jp/modules/news22/index.php?page=article&storyid=18&topicid=1 |title=Foreign Press Club of Japan Fact Book |publisher=Fpcj.jp |date= |accessdate=2013-01-19}}</ref> Most students attend public schools through the lower secondary level, but [[private education]] is popular at the upper secondary and university levels. Japan's education system played a central part in Japan's recovery and [[Japanese post-war economic miracle|rapid economic growth]] in the decades following the end of [[World War II]]. |
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After World War II, the [[Fundamental Law of Education]] and the School Education Law were enacted in 1947 under the direction of the [[Occupation of Japan|occupation forces]]. The latter law defined the school system that is still in effect today: six years of [[Primary education|elementary school]], three years of [[Middle school|junior high school]], three years of high school, two or four years of university. |
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Education prior to elementary school is provided at [[kindergarten]]s and [[Day care|day-care]] centers. Public and private day-care centers take children from under age one on up to five years old. The programmes for those children aged 3–5 resemble those at kindergartens. The educational approach at kindergartens varies greatly from unstructured environments that emphasize play to highly structured environments that are focused on having the child pass the entrance exam at a private elementary school. |
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==History== |
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{{main|History of education in Japan}} |
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[[File:Terakoya for girls.jpg|thumb|right|[[Terakoya]] for girls in [[Edo period]]]] |
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Formal '''education in Japan''' began with the adoption of [[Chinese culture]] in the 6th century. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Confucianism|Confucian]] teachings as well as sciences, [[East Asian calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[divination]] and literature were taught at the courts of [[Asuka, Yamato|Asuka]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] and [[Kyoto|Heian]]. Scholar officials were chosen through an [[Imperial examination]] system. But contrary to China, the system never fully took hold and titles and posts at the court remained hereditary family possessions. The rise of the ''[[Bushi (warrior)|bushi]]'', the military class, during the [[Kamakura period]] ended the influence of scholar officials, but Buddhist monasteries remained influential centers of learning. |
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In the [[Edo period]], the [[Yushima Seidō]] in Edo was the chief educational institution of the state; and at its head was the ''Daigaku-no-kami'', a title which identified the leader of the Tokugawa training school for shogunate bureaucrats.<ref>Kelly, Boyd. (1999). [http://books.google.com/books?id=JBqWbDmFsfEC&pg=PA522&dq= ''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing,'' Vol. 1, p. 522;] De Bary, William ''et al.'' (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=6wS_ijD6DSgC&pg=PA69&dq= ''Sources of Japanese Tradition,'' Vol. 2, p. 69.]</ref> |
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Under the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], the [[daimyō]] vied for power in the largely pacified country. Since their influence could not be raised through war, they competed on the economic field. Their warrior-turned-bureaucrat Samurai elite had to be educated not only in military strategy and the martial arts, but also agriculture and accounting. Likewise, the wealthy merchant class needed education for their daily business, and their wealth allowed them to be patrons of arts and science. But temple schools ([[terakoya]]) educated peasants too, and it is estimated that at the end of the Edo period 50% of the male and 20% of the female population possessed some degree of literacy. Even though contact with foreign countries was restricted, books from China and Europe were eagerly imported and [[Rangaku]] ("Dutch studies") became a popular area of scholarly interest. |
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===Meiji Restoration=== |
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After the [[Meiji Restoration]] of 1868, the methods and structures of Western learning were adopted as a means to make Japan a strong, modern nation. Students and even high-ranking government officials were sent abroad to study, such as the [[Iwakura mission]]. Foreign scholars, the so-called ''[[Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan|o-yatoi gaikokujin]]'', were invited to teach at newly founded universities and military academies. Compulsory education was introduced, mainly after the [[Prussian education system|Prussian model]]. By 1890, only 20 years after the resumption of full international relations, Japan discontinued employment of the foreign consultants. |
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| ⚫ | |||
The rise of [[Japanese militarism|militarism]] led to the use of the education system to prepare the nation for war. |
The rise of [[Japanese militarism|militarism]] led to the use of the education system to prepare the nation for war. |
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Instruction in junior high schools tends to rely on the lecture method. Teachers also use other media, such as television and radio, and there is some laboratory work. By 1989 about 45% of all public junior high schools had computers, including schools that used them only for administrative purposes. All course contents are specified in the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools. Some subjects, such as Japanese language and mathematics, are coordinated with the elementary curriculum. Others, such as foreign-language study, begin at this level, though from April 2011 English became a compulsory part of the elementary school curriculum. The junior school curriculum covers Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts, health, and physical education. All students are also exposed to industrial arts and homemaking. Moral education and special activities continue to receive attention. Most students also participate in one of a range of school clubs that occupy them until around 6pm most weekdays (including weekends and often before school as well), as part of an effort to address juvenile delinquency. |
Instruction in junior high schools tends to rely on the lecture method. Teachers also use other media, such as television and radio, and there is some laboratory work. By 1989 about 45% of all public junior high schools had computers, including schools that used them only for administrative purposes. All course contents are specified in the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools. Some subjects, such as Japanese language and mathematics, are coordinated with the elementary curriculum. Others, such as foreign-language study, begin at this level, though from April 2011 English became a compulsory part of the elementary school curriculum. The junior school curriculum covers Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts, health, and physical education. All students are also exposed to industrial arts and homemaking. Moral education and special activities continue to receive attention. Most students also participate in one of a range of school clubs that occupy them until around 6pm most weekdays (including weekends and often before school as well), as part of an effort to address juvenile delinquency. |
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A growi |
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A growing number of junior high school students also attend ''[[juku]]'', private extracurricular study schools, in the evenings and on weekends. A focus by students upon these other studies and the increasingly structured demands upon students' time have been criticized by teachers and in the media for contributing to a decline in classroom standards and student performance in recent years. |
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The ministry recognizes a need to improve the teaching of all foreign languages, especially English. To improve instruction in spoken English, the government invites many young native speakers of English to Japan to serve as assistants to school boards and prefectures under its [[JET Programme|Japan Exchange and Teaching Program]]. Beginning with 848 participants in 1987, the program grew to a high of 6,273 participants in 2002.<ref>[http://www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/visit/jet/participants.pdf ]{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref> However, the program has been on the decline in recent years due to several factors, including shrinking local school budgets funding the program, as well as an increasing number of school boards hiring their foreign native speakers directly or through lower-paying, private agencies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20060328zg.html |title=Times get tough for teachers | The Japan Times Online |publisher=Search.japantimes.co.jp |date=2006-03-28 |accessdate=2013-01-19}}</ref> |
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===High school=== |
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[[File:Kanagawa highschool class.jpg|thumb|A high school class in 1963]] |
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{{main|Secondary education in Japan}} |
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Even though [[upper secondary school|upper-secondary school]] is not compulsory in Japan, 94% of all junior high school graduates entered high schools as of 2005.<ref>STATISTICAL ABSTRACT 2006 edition<http://www.mext.go.jp/english/statist/index.htm></ref> Private upper-secondary schools account for about 55% of all upper-secondary schools, and neither public nor private schools are free. The [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology|Ministry of Education]] estimated that annual family expenses for the education of a child in a public upper-secondary school were about 300,000 [[yen]] (US$2,142) in the 1980s and that private upper-secondary schools were about twice as expensive. |
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The most common type of upper-secondary school has a full-time, general program that offered academic courses for students preparing for higher education as well as technical and vocational courses for students expecting to find employment after graduation. More than 70% of upper-secondary school students were enrolled in the general academic program in the late 1980s. A small number of schools offer part-time programs, evening courses, or correspondence education. |
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The first-year programs for students in both academic and commercial courses are similar. They include basic academic courses, such as [[Japanese language]], [[English language|English]], [[mathematics]], and [[science]]. In upper-secondary school, differences in ability are first publicly acknowledged, and course content and course selection are far more individualized in the second year. However, there is a core of academic material throughout all programs. |
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Vocational-technical programs includes several hundred specialized courses, such as information processing, navigation, fish farming, business English, and ceramics. Business and industrial courses are the most popular, accounting for 72% of all students in full-time vocational programs in 1989. |
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Most upper-secondary teachers are university graduates. Upper-secondary schools are organized into departments, and teachers specialize in their major fields although they teach a variety of courses within their disciplines. Teaching depends largely on the lecture system, with the main goal of covering the very demanding curriculum in the time allotted. Approach and subject coverage tends to be uniform, at least in the public schools. |
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Training of disabled students, particularly at the upper-secondary level, emphasizes vocational education to enable students to be as independent as possible within society. Vocational training varies considerably depending on the student's disability, but the options are limited for some. It is clear that the government is aware of the necessity of broadening the range of possibilities for these students. Advancement to higher education is also a goal of the government, and it struggles to have institutions of higher learning accept more students with disabilities. |
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===Universities and Colleges=== |
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{{main|Higher education in Japan}} |
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As of 2005, more than 2.8 million students were enrolled in 726 universities. At the top of the higher education structure, these institutions provide a four-year training leading to a [[bachelor's degree]], and some offer six-year programs leading to a professional degree. There are two types of public four-year colleges: the ninety-six [[Japanese national university|national universities]] (including the [[Open University of Japan]]) and the thirty-nine local [[public universities]], founded by [[prefectures]] and [[municipalities]]. The 372 remaining four-year colleges in 1991 were private. |
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The overwhelming majority of college students attend full-time day programs. In 1990 the most popular courses, enrolling almost 40 percent of all undergraduate students, were in the [[social sciences]], including [[business]], [[law]], and [[accounting]]. Other popular subjects were [[engineering]] (19 percent), the [[humanities]] (15 percent), and [[education]] (7 percent). |
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The average costs (tuition, fees, and living expenses) for a year of higher education in 1986 were 1.4 million yen (US$10,000). To help defray expenses, students frequently work part-time or borrow money through the government-supported Japan Scholarship Association. Assistance is also offered by local governments, nonprofit corporations, and other institutions. |
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According to [[The Times Higher Education Supplement]] and École des Mines de Paris, the top-ranking universities in Japan are the [[University of Tokyo]], [[Kyoto University]], [[Keio University]] and [[Waseda University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alnaja7.org/success/Education/times_world_ranking_2005.pdf |title=The Times Higher Education Supplement World University Rankings |date=2005-10-28 |publisher= TSL Education Ltd. |format = PDF | accessdate=2007-03-27}}</ref><ref>[http://www.mines-paristech.fr/Actualites/PR/EMP-ranking.html World University Rankings]</ref> |
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The [[QS World University Rankings|QS Asia University Rankings]] Top 20 included [[University of Tokyo]] at 5th position, [[Osaka University]] at 7th, [[Kyoto University]] at 8th, [[Tohoku University]] at 9th, [[Nagoya University]] at 10th, [[Tokyo Institute of Technology]] at 11th, [[Kyushu University]] at 17th and [[University of Tsukuba]] at 20th.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/asian-university-rankings/2010 |title=Asian University Rankings 2010 - Top 200 |publisher=Topuniversities.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-19}}</ref> |
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Based on 2011 Times Higher Education - QS World University Rankings, there are 33 Japanese Universities in the top 100 Asian University Rankings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/japanese-universities-dominate-top-10-spots-in-asian-univ-rankings |title=Japanese universities dominate top 10 spots in Asian univ rankings |publisher=Japantoday.com |date=2009-05-11 |accessdate=2013-01-19}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|Japan|Education}} |
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*[[Curriculum guideline]] |
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*[[Eikaiwa school]] -English conversation class |
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*[[Japanese history textbook controversies]] |
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*[[Graduation#Japan|Japanese graduation ceremony]] |
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*[[Japanese school uniform]] |
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*[[Language minority students in Japanese classrooms]] |
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*[[Yutori education]] |
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==References== |
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{{reflist|30em}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* De Bary, William Theodore, [[Carol Gluck]], Arthur E. Tiedemann. (2005). ''Sources of Japanese Tradition,'' Vol. 2. New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. 10-ISBN 0-231-12984-X/13-ISBN 978-0-231-12984-8; [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/255020415 OCLC 255020415] |
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* Hebert, David G. (2011). [http://www.springer.com/education+%26+language/book/978-94-007-2177-7 Wind Bands and Cultural Identity in Japanese Schools]. Springer press, 2011. |
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* Hood, Christopher P. ''Japanese Education Reform: Nakasone's Legacy'', 2001, London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-23283-X. |
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* Kelly, Boyd. (1999). ''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing,'' Vol. 1. London: [[Taylor & Francis]]. 10-ISBN 1-884964-33-8/13-ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6 |
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* Uno, Kathleen S. (1999). ''Passages to Modernity: Motherhood, Childhood, and Social Reform in Early Twentieth Century Japan''. Hawai'i: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1619-3, ISBN 978-0-8248-2137-1. |
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* Hiroko Takeda, [http://www.ifri.org/downloads/pe12011hirokoeng.pdf ''Who’s Afraid of ‘Bad Mothers’?'' Changing women’s socio-economic positions and the discursive politics surrounding mothers in contemporary Japan]; [[Politique étrangère|''Politique étrangère'']] - [[Institut français des relations internationales|IFRI]] |
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==External links== |
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*[http://www.mext.go.jp/english/index.htm Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology] |
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{Japan topics}} |
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{{Education in Asia}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Education In Japan}} |
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[[Category:Education in Japan| ]] |
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[[es:Sistema educativo de Japón]] |
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Revision as of 19:08, 8 March 2013
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2011) |
 | |
| General details | |
|---|---|
| Primary languages | Japanese |
| Literacy | |
| Total | 99.0% [d] |
| Male | 99.9% |
| Female | 99.7% |
In Japan, education is compulsory at the elementary and lower secondary levels in Japan after 1850 as part of its engagement with the West. Meiji period leaders decided the nation-state had the primary role in mobilizing individuals - and children - in service of the state. The Western-style school was introduced as the agent to reach that goal. By the 1890s, schools were generating new sensibilities regarding childhood.[1] After 1890 Japan had numerous reformers, child experts, magazine editors, and well-educated mothers who bought into the new sensibility. They taught the upper middle class a model of childhood that included children having their own space where they read children's books, played with educational toys and, especially, devoted enormous time to school homework. These ideas rapidly disseminated through all social classes [2][3]
The rise of militarism led to the use of the education system to prepare the nation for war.
Post-WWII
After the defeat in World War II, the allied occupation government set an education reform as one of its primary goals, to eradicate militarist teachings and "democratize" Japan. The education system was rebuilt after the American model.
The end of the 1960s were a time of student protests around the world, and also in Japan. The main subject of protest was the Japan-U.S. security treaty. A number of reforms were carried out in the post-war period until today. They aimed at easing the burden of entrance examinations, promoting internationalization and information technologies, diversifying education and supporting lifelong learning.
In successive international tests of mathematics, Japanese children consistently rank at or near the top (see TIMSS).[4] The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) is responsible for educational administration. Students' academic skills, however, may have declined since the mid-1990s.[5]
School grades
The school year in Japan begins in April and classes are held from Monday to either Friday or Saturday, depending on the school. The school year consists of two or three terms, which are separated by short holidays in spring and winter, and a six week long summer break.[6]
The year structure is summarized in the table below.
| Age | Grade | Educational establishments | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3-4 | Kindergarten (幼稚園 Yōchien) |
Special school (特別支援学校 Tokubetsu-shien gakkō) | |||||
| 4-5 | |||||||
| 5-6 | |||||||
| 6-7 | 1 | Elementary school (小学校 Shōgakkō) Compulsory Education | |||||
| 7-8 | 2 | ||||||
| 8-9 | 3 | ||||||
| 9-10 | 4 | ||||||
| 10-11 | 5 | ||||||
| 11-12 | 6 | ||||||
| 12-13 | 1 | Junior high school / Lower secondary school (中学校 chūgakkō) Compulsory Education | |||||
| 13-14 | 2 | ||||||
| 14-15 | 3 | ||||||
| 15-16 | 1 | High school / Upper secondary school (高等学校 kōtōgakkō, abbr. 高校 kōkō) |
College of technology (高専 kōsen) | ||||
| 16-17 | 2 | ||||||
| 17-18 | 3 | ||||||
| 18-19 | University: Undergraduate (大学 daigaku; gakushi-katei) |
National Academy (大学校 daigakkō) |
Medical School (医学部 Igaku-bu) Veterinary school (獣医学部 Juigaku-bu) Dentistry School (歯学部 Shigaku-bu) Pharmaceutical School (薬学部 Yakugaku-bu) National Defense Medical College (防衛医科大学校, Bōei Ika Daigakkō) |
Community College (短期大学 Tanki-daigaku) Vocational School (専門学校 Senmon-gakkō) | |||
| 19-20 | Associate | ||||||
| 20-21 | |||||||
| 21-22 | Bachelor | ||||||
| 22-23 | Graduate School: Master (大学院修士課程 Daigaku-in Shūshi Katei) |
National Academy: Master (大学校修士課程 Daigakkō Shūshi katei) | |||||
| 23-24 | Master | ||||||
| 24-25 | Graduate School: Ph.D (大学院博士課程 Daigaku-in Hakushi Katei) |
National Defense Academy: Ph.D (防衛大学校博士課程 Bōei Daigakkō Hakushi katei) |
Medical School: Ph.D (医学博士 Igaku Hakushi) Veterinary School: Ph.D (獣医学博士 Juigaku Hakushi) Dentistry School: Ph.D (歯学博士 Shigaku Hakushi) Pharmaceutical School: Ph.D (薬学博士 Yakugaku Hakushi) | ||||
| 25-26 | |||||||
| 26-27 | Ph.D | ||||||
| 27-28 | Ph.D | ||||||
Junior high school
The lower secondary school covers grades seven, eight, and nine, and children between the ages of roughly 12 and 15, with increased focus on academic studies. Although it is still possible to leave the formal education system after completing junior high school and find employment, fewer than 4% did so by the late 1980s.
Like elementary schools, most junior high schools in the 1980s were public, but 5% were private. Private schools were costly, averaging 558,592 yen (US$3,989) per student in 1988, about four times more than the 130,828 yen (US$934) that the ministry estimated as the cost for students enrolled in public junior high school. Teachers often majored in the subjects they taught, and more than 80% graduated from a four-year college. Classes are large, with thirty-eight students per class on average, and each class is assigned a homeroom teacher who doubles as counselor. Unlike elementary students, junior high school students have different teachers for different subjects. The teacher, however, rather than the students, moves to a new room for each fifty or forty-five minute period.
Instruction in junior high schools tends to rely on the lecture method. Teachers also use other media, such as television and radio, and there is some laboratory work. By 1989 about 45% of all public junior high schools had computers, including schools that used them only for administrative purposes. All course contents are specified in the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools. Some subjects, such as Japanese language and mathematics, are coordinated with the elementary curriculum. Others, such as foreign-language study, begin at this level, though from April 2011 English became a compulsory part of the elementary school curriculum. The junior school curriculum covers Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts, health, and physical education. All students are also exposed to industrial arts and homemaking. Moral education and special activities continue to receive attention. Most students also participate in one of a range of school clubs that occupy them until around 6pm most weekdays (including weekends and often before school as well), as part of an effort to address juvenile delinquency.
A growi
- ^ Brian Platt, "Japanese Childhood, Modern Childhood: The Nation-State, the School, and 19th-Century Globalization," Journal of Social History, Summer 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 4, pp 965-985
- ^ Kathleen S. Uno, Passages to Modernity: Motherhood, Childhood, and Social Reform in Early Twentieth Century Japan (1999)
- ^ Mark Jones, Children as Treasures: Childhood and the Middle Class in Early Twentieth Century Japan (2010)
- ^ "PISA scores for 15 year olds in Japan, 2005:". Apa.org. Retrieved 2013-01-19.
- ^ Matsutani, Minoru, "Student count, knowledge sliding", Japan Times, 10 January 2012, p. 3.
- ^ "Japanese education system". Japan-guide.com. 2002-06-09. Retrieved 2013-01-19.